HISTORY: What Historians Say About the Bible

The Bible Historically Unique

Voltaire and the Bible
Josh McDowell has written that the noted infidel Voltaire, symbol of the French Revolution, predicted that "within one hundred years from his time Christianity would be swept from existence and passed into history." Evidence That Demands A Verdict, vol. 1 p. 20 Will Durant's volume on Voltaire notes a quote from Voltaire "can there be anything more splendid than to put the whole world into commotion by a few arguments?" The Age of Voltaire, vol. 9, p. 609 Later in Voltaire's life he summed up his life work calling himself a "great destroyer" who has built nothing. The Age of Voltaire, vol. 9, p. 609 Instead of the Bible passing into history it is Voltaire. While the circulation of the Bible continues to increase in almost all parts of the world, Evidence That Demands A Verdict, vol. 1, p. 20 it is interesting to observe all but a few of Voltaire's works are impossible to find. Geisler and Nix have documented that within a 190 years Voltaire's own property was used by the Geneva Bible Society for printing and warehousing the Bible.

The Place of the Old Testament Among the Non-Jewish in Antiquity

Bernard Ramm has said that the "Jews preserved it as no other manuscript has ever been preserved. With their massora (parva, magna, and finalis) they kept tabs on every letter, syllable, word and paragraph. They had special classes of men within their culture whose sole duty was to preserve and transmit these documents with practically perfect fidelity - scribes, lawyers, massoretes. Who ever counted the letters and syllables and words of Plato or Aristotle? Cicero or Senaca?" Evidence That Demands A Verdict, vol. 1, p. 19

The Encyclopedia Britannica says, "to the first Christians, who were Jews, the law and the Prophets were already sacred. Their national sacred writings were to them the oracles of God, though they could no longer be regarded as containing the whole truth of God." All of the writings of the Old Testament spoke of Christ to them. The coming of the Messiah had revealed God with a completeness that could not be discovered in the Old Testament. The Britannica says, "yet since all the hopes of the Old Testament seemed to these Jewish Christians to be fulfilled in Jesus Christ, they more than ever were convinced that their national sacred books were divinely inspired." ibid.

Placing the Bible in its Historical Context

Unique Authors & Literary Styles

Professor H.H. Rowley wrote, "it is not because scholars of today begin with more conservative presuppositions than their predecessors that they have a much greater respect for the Patriarchal stories than was formerly common, but because the evidence warrants it." Evidence That Demands A Verdict, vol.1, p. 65 W.F. Albright says, "there can be no doubt that archeology has confirmed the substantial historicity of Old Testament tradition." Evidence That Demands A Verdict, vol.1, p. 65 Professor Merrill Unger has written "Old Testament archeology has rediscovered whole nations, resurrected important peoples, and in a most astonishing manner filled in historical gaps, adding immeasurably to the knowledge of biblical backgrounds." Evidence That Demands A Verdict, vol.1, p. 66 William Albright agrees saying "as critical study of the Bible is more and more influenced by the rich new material from the ancient Near East we shall see a steady rise in respect for the historical significance" for both the Old and New Testaments. Evidence That Demands A Verdict, vol.1, p. 66

Milar Burrows, the Yale scholar and researcher has written that "that the excessive skepticism of many liberal theologians stems not from a careful evaluation of the available data, but from an enormous predisposition against the supernatural." Burrows concludes that scientific research "has unquestionable strengthened confidence in the reliability of the Scriptural record." He remarked that among the community of scholars they have found their "respect for the Bible increased by the experience of excavation in Palestine." In summary this work has "in many cases refuted the views of modern critics. It has been shown in a number of instances that these views rest on false assumptions and unreal, artificial schemes of historical development. This is a real contribution, and not to be minimized." Evidence That Demands A Verdict, vol.1, p. 66

Sir Fredrich Kenyon said, "it is therefore legitimate to say that, in respect of the part of the Old Testament against which the disintegrating criticism of the last half of the nineteenth century was chiefly directed, the evidence of archeology has been to re-establish its authority, and likewise to augment its value by rendering it more intelligible through a fuller knowledge of its background and setting." Evidence That Demands A Verdict, vol.1, p. 66

One evidence that the Bible record is credible is the existence of the early church fathers whose sermons and lectionaries give evidence that"they continued to look upon the Old Testament as a full and lasting record of the revelation of God." From God To Us, Moody Press, Geisler and Nix, p. 154 "The writings of the Fathers were also widely read and circulated in the churches, and their quoting of the New Testament as authoritative in their struggles against heretical groups, dialogues with unbelievers, and exhortations against vice tell much about the history, doctrine and practices of the early church." From God To Us, Moody Press, Geisler and Nix, p. 155

Geisler and Nix deal with the issue of the Bible as being "genuine." Webster's Dictionary defines genuine as being pure and true not being adulterated. Geisler and Nix say the Bible they ask "is this document really from its alleged source or author?" From God To Us, Moody Press, Geisler and Nix, p. 174 They point to the tremendous manuscript evidence saying, "the Bible the most well preserved book to survive from ancient world." From God To Us, Moody Press, Geisler and Nix, p. 186 J. Bright has written, "we can assert with full confidence that Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob were actual historical individuals." Evidence That Demands A Verdict, vol. 2, p. 81

"one would not expect so tiny a territory to play a major role in history, or to leave behind it an influence greater than that of Babylonia, Assyria or Persia, perhaps greater even than that of Egypt or Greece." Story of Civilization, Simon and Schuster, Will Durant, vol. 1, p. 299 Of the land Durant says, "we cannot judge the fruitfulness of ancient Palestine from the barren wastes and timid oases that confronted the brave Jews who in our time [1954] returned to their old home after eighteen centuries of exile, dispersion and suffering." ibid., p. 300 Of the archeological findings in this century he says in a footnote, "the discoveries here summarized have restored considerable credit to those chapters of Genesis that record the early traditions of the Jews ... the story of the Jews as unfolded in the Old Testament has stood the test of criticism and archeology; every year adds corroboration from documents, monuments, or excavations. Potsherds unearthed at Tel Ad-Duweir in 1935 bore Hebrew inscriptions confirming part of the narrative of the Books of the Kings. We must accept the Biblical account provisionally until it is disproved." ibid.

As to the credibility of the New Testament Will Durant uses volume three of his massive Story of Civilization series. He begins with background on Christ Himself after chapter 25 deals with the long struggle of Rome in maintaining "pax" in Judea. He includes a chronological table covering the birth of Christ in 4 B.C. dating His crucifixion in A.D. 30. Durant makes an excellent case for the historicity of the Gospel accounts of Christ. He quotes passages from ancient non-Christian historians who corroborate various aspects of Christ's life. Durant quotes Christ passages even in the Talmud. Other important sources Durant quotes are Josephus, Pliny, Tacitus, Suetonius, and Thallus. Durant wrote, "we may conclude, with the brilliant but judicious Schweitzer, that the Gospel of Mark is in essentials "genuine history." Story of Civilization, Simon and Schuster, Will Durant, vol. 3, p. 556 Speaking of all four authors of the Gospels, Durant wrote, "the evangelists shared with Cicero, Sallust, and Tacitus the conception of history as a vehicle for moral ideas." ibid., p. 557 Durant believes their message has integrity because each author and leader in the primitive church was also self demeaning sharing passages that a "mere inventor would have concealed." ibid. Durant says, "no one reading these scenes can doubt the reality of the figure behind them. That a few simple men should in one generation have invented so powerful and appealing a personality, so lofty an ethic and so inspiring a vision of human brotherhood, would be a miracle far more incredible than any recorded in the Gospels." ibid

Will Durant also deals with the apostle Paul who wrote most of the remainder of the New Testament. Story of Civilization, Simon and Schuster, Will Durant, vol. 3, p. 579-592 The headings he gave confirms Durant's belief that Paul was a genuine person in agreement with the Book of Acts. The first heading reads "The Persecutor," the second is "The Missionary," the third is, "The Theologian," the final being, "The Martyr." Durant included Paul in his Chronological Table as being converted in the same year as Christ was crucified A.D. 30, he dated Paul's first missionary journey in A.D. 45-47, his second mission in A.D. 50-53 and his third from A.D. 53-57. Durant's narrative includes his time in prison where he says Paul, "found some solace in sending long and tender letters to his distant flocks. For ten years now he had written such epistles; there were doubtless many more than have come down to us under his name. They did not come directly from his pen; he dictated them, often adding a postscript in his own rough hand; he left them apparently unrevised, with all their repetitions, obscurities, and bad grammar on their head. Nevertheless, the depth and sincerity of their feeling, their angry devotion to a great cause, their profusion of nobel and memorable speech make them the most forceful and eloquent letters in all literature." Story of Civilization, Simon and Schuster, Will Durant, vol. 3, p. 587

Durant's research led him to say Paul's epistles "were preserved, and often publicly read, by the congregations to which they were addressed. By the end of the first century many of them were widely known; Clement of Rome refers to them in A.D. 97, Ignatius and Polycarp soon afterwards; gradually they entered into the subtlest theology of the church." Story of Civilization, Simon and Schuster, Will Durant, vol. 3, p. 588

Of the final book of the New Testament Durant's research "assigns the Book of Revelation to the year A.D. 69-70." ibid Durant says "in form Revelation resembles the books of Daniel and Enoch. Such prophetic symbolic visions were a literary device frequently used by the Jews of the age." ibid., p. 593 On content Durant comments, "Satan and his followers, having revolted against God, are defeated by Michael's angelic hosts, are cast down upon the earth, and there lead the pagan world in the attack upon Christianity." ibid., p.594 Says Durant, "after a thousand years Satan will released to prey upon mankind ... but they will once more be overcome, and this time Satan and his followers will be cast into Hell forever." ibid. Durant says "the Apocalypse is Jewish poetry." ibid.

REALITY: Will Archeology Confirm God's Word?

Joshua 4:21 He said to the Israelites, "In the future when your descendants ask their fathers, ‘What do these stones mean?'

“For some two centuries archaeologists have probed the lands specifically related to the Old Testament. Truly amazing discoveries have been made which illuminate Old Testament backgrounds and life from the Stone Age to modern times.”

William G. Dever said, “Archaeology is one of the fastest-moving of all the social science disciplines today, both in theoretical reformations and in the astonishing type and array of new data that is turning up.”

THE WORK OF ARCHEOLOGY
The University of Pennsylvania defines archeology as "the scientific study of early historic and prehistoric cultures by excavation and analysis of their artifacts, monuments, and other remains in context." Encyclopedia Britannica researchers says the word archaeology comes from the French archéologie, from Late Latin archaeologia, from Greek archaiologia, which means antiquarian lore comes from two words, archaio- and -logia -logy. They define the term as the scientific study of material remains (as fossil relics, artifacts, and monuments) of past human life and activities and also as the remains of the culture of a people.

Philip Kopper, author for the Smithsonian Institute has written, "consider the difficult task of the archeologist ... scientists must base most of their theories on archeological evidence, the mute testimony of objects in the earth." Smithsonian Book of the North American Indians, Philip Kopper 1986, Smithsonian, p. 67 Kopper says the science of archeology is a "hybrid science, even as a complex of sciences and humanities studies, archeology has had mixed success in the course of almost two centuries. Called a single discipline for the sake of convenience, it has a history that sometimes seems as complex and ramified as the bygone civilizations it explores." ibid.

FIFTEENTH CENTURY ORIGIN
The Encyclopedia Britannica says, "archaeology as a discipline has its earliest origins in 15th and 16th century Europe, when the Renaissance Humanists looked back upon the glories of Greece and Rome." This activity, however, was still not archaeology in the strict sense. It was more like what would be called art collecting.

THOMAS JEFFERSON IN NORTH AMERICA
The Smithsonian Institute writes that "the first North American excavator seems to have been ahead of his time. Thomas Jefferson, a father of the Republic is also somewhat sentimentally called the father of American archeology. In "Notes of the State of Virginia," written in 1781 and 1782, Jefferson describes his careful excavation of prehistoric remains, the continent's first archeological "dig" worthy of the name." Smithsonian Book of the North American Indians, Philip Kopper, 1986, Smithsonian, p. 68 Kopper says Jefforson's report "was a model in several aspects. First of all he had not set out to prove a favored bit of hearsay (or disprove a heresy) but to discover whether any, and which of these opinions were just. Second, he drew conclusions from what he observed. Third, his objective investigation revealed the presence of strata in the mound, and he understood their meaning. Distinguishable layers of earth separated layers containing human relics, indicating a series of depositions and thus distinct periods in time. Finally, in putting his findings in larger perspective, he supported a tentative conclusion about the Indian's origin." Smithsonian Book of the North American Indians, Philip Kopper, 1986, Smithsonian, p. 71

Classical Archaeology
The Encyclopedia Britannica writes, "Archaeology proper began with an interest in the Greeks and Romans ... in 18th-century Italy with the excavations of the Roman cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum. Classical archaeology was established on a more scientific basis by the work of Heinrich Schliemann, who investigated the origins of Greek civilization at Troy and Mycenae in the 1870s.

EGYTIAN ARCHEOLOGY
Egyptian archaeology began with Napoleon's invasion of Egypt in 1798. He brought with him scholars who set to work recording the archaeological remains of the country. Champollion was able to decipher ancient Egyptian writing for the first time in 1822. British archaeologist Flinders Petrie, who began work in Egypt in 1880, made great discoveries there and in Palestine during his long lifetime. Petrie developed a systematic method of excavation, the principles of which he summarized in Methods and Aims in Archaeology (1904). Howard Carter and Lord Carnarvon to make the most spectacular discovery in Egyptian archaeology, that of the tomb of Tutankhamen in 1922.

Mesopotamian Archaeology
"Mesopotamian archaeology also began with hectic digging into mounds in the hopes of finding treasure and works of art, but gradually these gave way in the 1840s to planned digs such as those of the Frenchman Paul-Émile Botta at Nineveh and Khorsabad, and the Englishman Austen Henry Layard at Nimrud, In 1846 Henry Creswicke Rawlinson became the first man to decipher the Mesopotamian cuneiform writing. Toward the end of the 19th century, systematic excavation revealed a previously unknown people, the Sumerians, who had lived in Mesopotamia before the Babylonians and Assyrians. The most impressive Sumerian excavation was that of the Royal Tombs at Ur by Leonard Woolley in 1926." Encyclopedia Britannica

IMPORTANCE OF POTTERY ~ Flinders Petrie
Professor James Pritchard of the University of Pennsylvania and author for The National Geographic Society wrote, "the greatest treasure an archeologist can find is pottery. Written texts can stretch the truth. Broken pots can not. The man who taught us to read them is Flinders Petrie, a rare genius who spent most of his long life in the field. Petrie began work in Palestine in 1890. From then we date modern Biblical archeology. Instead of scooping treasures from the top of a tell, or mound, he sliced down through its layers. Petrie sampled the strata, collected bits of pottery from them, and reported that the tell gave "at one stroke a series of all the various pottery over a thousand years." Petrie called pottery the "essential alphabet of archeology" which could be used to date the layers of the tell. Everyday Life in Bible Times, National Geographic Society, J.B. Pritchard 1967, p. 21-23

TRENCHING BIBLICAL CITIES
The National Geographic writes, "before World War I, archeologists trenched some of the best known Bible cities: Gezer, Taanach, Megiddo, Jericho, and Samaria. Between the wars Megiddo proved to have no fewer than 20 layers, each a city with its own plan. At Beth - shan, south of the Sea of Galilee, excavators counted 18 separate strata. Treasures from this dig now lie on display in Jerusalem and Philadelphia. Everyday Life in Bible Times, National Geographic Society, J.B. Pritchard 1967, p. 24

CONTEXT
The archeological term "context" is central to modern archeology. Context means that researchers evaluate everything at the site from the most insignificant fragments to city center ruins. Research is conducted to determine or reconstruct an accurate correlation of isolated artifacts into relationship with the remainder of the site, and with other sites.

Each artifact is examined in context with an eye to discovering its purpose in the lives of the people. For example, if a team of archeologists finds a simple piece of pottery, it could become the key that reveals details about these people's social life, religious practices, culinary uses, or industrial activities. It could also reveal relationships with other ancient groups. A simple cache of tools, food remains or even the bones of a consumed animal found at community dump site, could become keys to assembling an understanding about trade and travel with other groups. ibid. pp. 227-228

Archeological Methods
In a modern archeological dig, a three dimensional grid is laid out with ropes. As excavators slowly dig down through the layers of each square, every trowel of dirt is carefully sifted for fragments. Broken artifacts are carefully and methodically re-assembled sometimes using nearly microscopic pieces. As each fragment is removed from the sifting operation, it is carefully mapped to show its exact location within the grid. As the location of each artifact is documented, it is done so in all three dimensions so no artifact will lose its context.

Every artifact or fragment is measured, numbered and photographed, so that future generations of researchers wanting to re-examine this evidence, and will be able to do so in the same context the original observers preserved.

Often important artifacts receive chemical analysis so scientists can understand where these people obtained the base materials to fabricate or construct it. ibid. p. 226 Every important artifact is either saved or removed to a laboratory for future study. The Smithsonian Book of North American Indians, p. 66-91

Usually an archeological team prepares a final report which is produced from the documentation. Sometimes it is published for use by other archeologists and students. Ency. Brit. 2:224-283

In 1799 when Napoleon's soldiers discovered in the Nile Delta a black basalt slab inscribed with the same textual message in three languages. Scientists with the expedition were puzzled. Jean Francois Champollion deciphered the writing 23 years later forever changing the way scholars understood Egypt. Everyday Life in Bible Times, National Geographic Society, J.B. Pritchard 1967, p. 19

W.M. Flinders Petrie
In 1890, W.M. Flinders Petrie (1853-1942, veteran Egyptologist), who laid many of the foundations for modern archeological science; took six weeks to excavate Tel el-Hesi (ancient Eglon 16 miles northeast of Gaza). Biblical Archeological Review, Herschel Shanks, vol. 21, no. 2, p. 6o Like Jefferson before him in America, Petrie confirmed to the world this Palestinian mound was in fact the layered ruins of a series of ancient cities. His research revealed that each succeeding city had been built on top of the ruins of the preceding city. Everyday Life in Bible Times, National Geographic Society, J.B. Pritchard 1967, p. 21-23

In 1889, John Peters, Professor of Hebrew at the University of Pennsylvania, began to dig at Nippur, south of Bagdad. Here were found some 30,000 tablets relating to ancient Sumer. Everyday Life in Bible Times, National Geographic Society, J.B. Pritchard 1967, p. 19

R.A.S. Macalister
Between 1902 and 1909 R.A.S. Macalister established himself as an archeologist excavating at Tel Gezer, the Biblical city that Solomon received as a wedding gift from his Egyptian father-in-law. Biblical Archeological Review writes that this dig by Macalister was "the largest dig in Palestine until that time." Biblical Archeological Review, Herschel Shanks, vol. 21, no. 2, p. 61

George Reisner
In 1908 George Reisner went to work in Samaria for fourteen years slowly revealing the ruins of Megiddo. From remote places like Egypt, Assyria, and Turkey, archeological field work began to furnish a foundational base of confirming evidence that restored the Bible's traditional place of being true historically. Before archeology, "Menes and other early kings of Egypt were declared by critics to be mere mythological characters; likewise Minos of Crete; and the stories of Troy and her heroes were said to belong to "cloudland." But the spades of Petrie at Abydos (Royal Tombs), of Evans at Knossos, and Schliemann at Troy have shown the "cloudland" as solid earth, and the ghostly heroes to be substantial men of flesh and blood." International Standard Bible Encyclopedia, 1:228-233 article on archeology by M.G. Kyle

W.F. Albright
Between 1926 and 1932 W.F. Albright [1891-1971] earned his Ph.D. in archaeology and linguistics at Johns Hopkins University in 1916. He became director of the American School of Oriental Research in Jerusalem in 1921. He is famed in his field for classifying pottery at Tell Beit Mirisim as belonging to the third millennium B.C. to the early sixth millennium B.C. The discovery of "foreign" pottery at the appropriate levels was evidence for the presence of an invading army. Discoveries of tablets or inscriptions assists in dating levels of sites. J.B. Pritchard of National Geographic wrote, "I first went to Palestine on the team of W.F. Albright ... night after night we would gather around Albright while he talked about our dig at Bethel." "Albright was a legend in his time. At Tell Beit Mirsim, hundreds of shards were picked up atop the mound before digging started. Glancing at them Abright calculated that the tell had been inhabited from 2000 to 600 B.C. After four years of excavating he concluded that his estimate had been wrong. The proper dating should have been from 2200 to 586 B.C." Everyday Life in Bible Times, National Geographic Society, J.B. Pritchard 1967, p. 24-28

Nelson Glueck
"Large scale archeological surveys were pioneered by Rabbi Nelson Glueck in the Transjordan in the 1930's. Hundreds of new sites were from various periods were investigated and mapped." The "Israeli method of excavation emphasized the exposure of large architectural complexes together with restorable pottery assemblages." Glueck's fieldwork was exemplary. Biblical Archeological Review, vol. 21, number 2, p. 65

Yigael Yadin
The National Geographic wrote, "Yigael Yadin, career soldier and Israel's Chief of the General Staff, resigned in 1952 to devote full time to archeology. North of the Sea of Galilee he led a major dig at Hazor. In the 1960' Yadin dug at Masada on a bluff near the Dead Sea - the last Jewish fortress to fall to the Romans in A.D. 73." Everyday Life in Bible Times, National Geographic Society, J.B. Pritchard 1967, p. 28-29 Later Yadin "discovered the Bar-Kkhba letters near the Dead Sea and helped obtain four of the Dead Sea Scrolls for the state of Israel." Archeology and the Bible, the Best of BAR, vol. 1, p. 323 Yadin ‘vigorously contended that archeology supports a military conquest of Canaan under Joshua, and confidently used the Bible to assign various monumental buildings to David, Solomon, Ahab and other kings. Because many of his students later became the backbone of Israeli archeology, Yadin's highly influential research agenda and explanatory paradigms are still with us today" Biblical Archeological Review, vol. 21, number 2, p. 64-65

Kathleen M. Kenyon
Between 1952 and 1958 "British scholar Dame Kathleen M. Kenyon introduced a new methodology at Jericho and Jerusalem. She dug in smaller squares of 5 m by 5 m (about 16 ft by 16 ft), leaving intervening vertical walls, or balks, in which debris can be seen in section. Digging proceeded by natural stratification, separating soil layers, or loci (sing., locus). This new excavation procedure made it possible to separate debris layers and the objects they contained with greater precision. In the late 1950s and 1960s G. Ernest Wright, David Noel Freedman, and other Americans, along with such Israelis as Yigael Yadin, Moshe Dothan, Benjamin Mazar, and Nah-man Avigad, excavated at new and old sites—Hazor, Shechem, Ashdod, Taanach, Gezer, and again Jerusalem—using this approach." Encarta Encyclopedia; Biblical Archeological Review, vol. 21, number 2, p. 64-65

William Dever
A "New Biblical Archeologist, "William Dever in his excavations at Gezer from 1966-1967 and again in 1984 and 1990 has "called for the abandonment of the term "Biblical Archeology." Dever "seemed embarrassed" at many of his colleague's who seemed to have inappropriately distanced themselves from the Bible." Biblical Archeological Review, vol. 21, number 2, p. 67 Dever advocates "more dialogue between Biblical studies and Palestinian archeology." ibid. Dever writes that "the present generation of Palestinian archeologists has failed to achieve a proper balance." Biblical Archeological Review, vol. 21, number 2, p. 96 "Dever's new agenda for Palestinian archeology, incorporating the "New Archeology" of the 1970's, the "post-processual," "contextual archeology" of the 1980's, and an interaction of Biblical studies is both timely and attractive." ibid.

Evidence for the United Monarchy
"Important background information concerning the period of the United Monarchy has also been discovered. During excavations at the old City of David in 1980, Yigal Shiloh uncovered an Iron Age palace of the 10th century BC, a major building of the era of David and Solomon. Work undertaken between 1955 and 1958 at the huge site of Hazor in southern Galilee served to reemphasize the extent of Solomon's provincial building enterprises. Characteristic of this work are the casemate wall systems (two parallel walls, with an intervening space, joined by crosswalls at intervals) with four entryway gates that are found there and at Gezer and Megiddo. Work undertaken between 1963 and 1965 at Masada, along the western shore of the Dead Sea, uncovered the fortress-retreat of Herod the Great. The elaborate and well-preserved remains of a three-tiered palace testify to the lavish building program of this Romanized Oriental monarch at the beginning of the Christian era." Encarta Encyclopedia

Evidence From the Cuneiform Libraries
"During a series of expeditions by the British in the mid-19th century, the great library of the 7th-century B.C. Assyrian king Ashurbanipal was uncovered at the site of ancient Nineveh (near modern Mosul, Iraq)." Cuneiform documents from ancient Mari (modern Tell Hariri) in western Syria have clarified the origins of Old Testament prophecy, the identification of place names, and the concept of tribal nomadism." Letters from Canaanite kings to their Egyptian overlords, found at Tall al ‘Amârinah in Egypt, have shed light on the political situation in Palestine about 100 years before the Israelite conquest. Numerous law codes from the libraries of great Assyrian and Babylonian kings have provided analogies and parallels to the law codes of the Old Testament." Encarta Encyclopedia

Evidence from the Library at Ebla
"Since 1964, an Italian expedition under the direction of Paolo Matthiae has exposed at ancient Ebla (modern Tell Mardîkh), in central Syria, royal palaces, a monumental city gate, rampart, temples, and private houses. From 1974 to 1976, thousands of tablets and fragments of tablets belonging to the early Bronze Age (perhaps c. 2500BC) were found. The tablets are written in cuneiform and represent two languages. The first is Sumerian, for which cuneiform was devised, and the second is Semitic, the actual language of the Eblaites and of many other peoples scattered throughout the Middle East. These texts have shed new light on commerce and culture in 3rd-millennium Syria and supplied considerable information about both languages at this stage of their evolution." Encarta Encyclopedia

Conquest of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar
"Nebuchadnezzar II (604-562 B.C.E.) defeated the Egyptians, rebuilt Babylon, and renewed the glories of an independent Babylonia for the last time. He twice invaded Judaea, capturing Jerusalem, destroying its temple, and exiling the cream of its population to Babylon. But like the other members of his dynasty (variously known as the Chaldaean Dynasty or the Tenth Dynasty of Babylon), he forbore to rehearse the details of his victorious campaigns in his own inscriptions, which dwell by preference on his pious activities on behalf of the Babylonian deities. This cylinder, for example, commemorates his reconstruction of the temple of the god of the city Marada. For his campaigns against Jerusalem, we must turn instead to the "Babylonian Chronicle," a priestly record of the chief events of each year beginning in 747 B.C. The Chronicle's version of matters is remarkably similar to that preserved in the Bible (2 Kings 24:10-17 etc.)." [W.W. Hallo, "Nebukadnezar Comes to Jerusalem," in Jonathan V. Plaut, ed., Through the Sound of Many Voices: Writing Contribute on the Occasion of the 70th Birthday of W. Gunther Plaut (Toronto, Lester and Orpen Dennys, 1882) 40-57].

Evidence from the Assyrian - Aramaic "Rosetta Stone"
In 1979 the statue of a Syrian king was found at Al Fakhkhârîyah in the Habur region of Syria. The statue, inscribed in Assyrian and Aramaic and dated around 1000 B.C., could be of the greatest value for linguists, especially Aramaists, as this is one of the longest inscriptions of such an early date in that language. Having a parallel text in Assyrian enhances its value." Encarta Encyclopedia

Important Inscriptional Evidence
"Among the most important archaeological discoveries have been numerous inscriptional materials. In 1967 at Deir Alla, in Jordan, extensive written fragments were found in an Iron Age temple. The most important of these concerned pagan traditions about the prophet-seer Balaam, apparently the same person memorialized in Numbers 22-24." Encarta Encyclopedia

"Many ostraca (broken pieces of pottery) with Hebrew writing have been discovered in excavations at ‘Arad, Beersheba, Quntillet Ajrud, and Izbet Sartah (ancient Ebenezer). Recently a huge pottery fragment was found containing a summary of the Egyptian system of numbers written out in ink, presumably for use by scribes." Encarta Encyclopedia

Evidence from the Dead Sea Scrolls 1947
"The discovery of the Qumrân scrolls and other manuscript fragments along the western shores of the Dead Sea since 1947 has revolutionized the understanding of later Jewish history and of New Testament background. These materials, dating from as far back as the 3rd century BC, have provided valuable information about the state of the biblical text." "They have also supplied important data supporting the Greek version of the Pentateuch and other books as a reliable witness to a Hebrew original that was different from the text used as a source of modern Bible texts." Encarta Encyclopedia

Evidences from Ancient Gibeon ~ Edward Robinson
In 1833, the American geographer and Bible scholar Edward Robinson suggested that the Palestinian village of el-Jib, which was located Atlas of Bible, map, p. 76 where the Bible suggests ancient Gibeon stood, 2 Sam 2:13; Jer 41:12 was in fact the ancient site of Gibeon. For many years there was no agreement among scholars. Many disagreed with Robinson's claim that the current name "el-Jib" had in it sufficient information to allow Robinson to call the site Gibeon. But in 1956-1962 James B. Pritchard, using modern archeological tools, began further excavations that settled the issue.

James B. Pritchard
From Pritchard's excavation, it was found that the region historically had been a major wine producing and exporting area from 1200 B.C. to 586 B.C. Pritchard wasable to find physical evidence of those early roots. He even unearthed some commercial wine jars that would have been used for exporting and shipping wine to distant parts of the world. Among those shards he discovered no less than 31 of those jars were labeled with the name of the city Gibeon Biblical Archaeological Review, Vol. 21, No. 3. p. 43; cf. Archeology and the Bible, Best of BAR, Early Israel, Biblical Archeological Society, 1990, V. 1, p. 257

Evidences from Jericho
Sellin and Watzinger excavated a Canaanite city from 1907 to 1909, which they believed to be the one destroyed by Joshua in the Bible. International Standard Bible Encyclopedia, V. 3 p. 1592

There is a map included in this chapter that shows the location of this and more than 50 other ancient archaeological mounds in Palestine. Atlas of the Bible Dictionary p. 35 Archaeologists call this site Tell es-Sultan, which the Bible calls the city of Jericho. Ency. Brit. v. 13 p. 1 According to a map of the ancient city area, the site sat where the Bible narrative claims was within a short walking distance from the River Jordan. New Bible Dict. p. 564 Although the site seems too arid today to support a city, twelve ancient aqueducts have been found which once brought water from the Wady Kelt. The ruins of these aqueducts are still a silent witness of past greatness. Int. Std. Bible Ency. V. 3 p. 1592

Scholars say erosion has damaged this site, having carried away much of the eastern portion of the original city. The wash from this erosion now lies under the modern road and cultivation. New Bible Dictionary p. 564 Of what is left of the old original site, modern excavators report there is a mound in the shape of a pear about 1,200 feet long, 600 feet wide, and 50 feet high. The mound also supports four smaller mounds; the highest of which is 90 feet high from the base. Scholars say because this city was also located on a spring known as 'Ain es-Sultan, and was an oasis in ancient times complete with trees; Deu 34:3 that historically people chose the site for re-habitation. Evidence has been found of a very long history of settlement, as archaeologists report, this site may well be one of the oldest in Palestine. Excavators have uncovered evidence of hut builders living on the site before the first city was constructed in about 3200 B.C.

Dwellings In the Wall at Jericho
Archaeologists tell us Jericho was a Canaanite city. Scholars say its name comes from a root word linking it to early worship of the "moon god Yarih." The oldest city was built with a stone wall that included at least one tower with inclosed stairways and round houses. Subsequently spacious rectangular houses became fashionable and skulls of venerated ancestors were embodied in clay molded portrait heads of remarkable realism. The tombs apparently have been able to preserve more artifacts than the city itself. Splendid pottery, furniture, jewelry, basketry, and even food stuffs have been found." New Bible Dict. p. 563

In 1955 archeologists working around the tombs discovered the extraordinary remains of an entire family (1600 B.C.), who were buried together in their mud brick home. Because they died of a plague which no one else in their community wanted to catch, this family was entombed right in their mud brick home. As the home was being covered, some gas was trapped inside which allowed normally perishable materials to be preserved. Scientists took advantage of this rare find and were able to examine furniture, baskets, and even food. The Israelites, p. 42

Walls Of Jericho
Excavators have photographed one section of part of these early wall systems, which some scholars believe could have been a piece of the wall remaining from Joshua's time. Our Living Bible p. 76 It is important to realize that not all scholars agree about some of the dating on parts of this wall. New settlements and cities have repeatedly been re-built in a layer-upon-layer fashion over past ruins. In the time of Joshua, we read of a final destruction of Jericho and of a curse directed to anyone attempting to rebuilt the city. Josh 6:26 We also read in the Bible that in the time of the Judges, Eglon temporarily occupied the oasis. Judges 3:13 Much later, in Ahab's reign, Hiel the Bethelite tried to re-build the city on its original ground, and was shocked to see this curse come to reality in the death of two sons. 1 Ki 16:34

Although future rebuilders attempted to build over the same site again, the evidence shows successful re-builders relocated the modern city (er-Riha) on a site about a mile away. Nearby, archeologists have uncovered the ruins of Herod's winter palace, as recorded in the New Testament, on a third site less than a mile from the original city. The Encyclopedia Britannica v. 13 p. 1

Evidences from the Holy City of Jerusalem
The most often mentioned city in the Bible is the city of Jerusalem. It stands out prophetically from the earliest writings. Later it stands out as a focal point in God's covenant with his people. Deu 28:63-67 One element of God's covenant was his warning not to turn to other "gods." Part of that covenant language said that if the people did turn to "other gods," Deu 6:12-15, 18 that God's protecting hand would be removed, and would instead bring in outside nations to carry the people into slavery Deu 28:48, 46-47 in foreign lands. Israel's first dispersion came when Jacob led his children into Egypt to escape a famine. The second dispersion came after centuries of idolatry and unbelief as Nebuchadnezzar carried Israel into Babylon in 606 B.C. Dan 1:1-2 That Assyrian captivity lasted for seventy years. The third dispersion came in 70 A.D., when Titus captured Jerusalem, just thirty-seven years after they rejected their Messiah and King. Jesus prophesied about this dispersion. Mt 24:2 But even though dispersions are not good news, God's Word promised that this third dispersion would not last forever. Isa 11:11-12; Neh 1:8-9; Amos 9:13-15; Isa 43:5-7

According to Solomon's prayer, Jerusalem became a spiritual touch point for God's people 2 Chron 6:19-21, 26, 29, 34, 36-39, 7:14-15 during times of dispersion. When they prayed, they faced the holy city and the temple, remembering God's promise to eventually bring them back. 2 Chron 7:14-15

Up until this century, the city was confined to the limits of the old 16th century walls which were closed and locked each evening. Int. Stand. Bible Enc. 3:1620 Before the time of the "Second Exodus" Jer 31:8; 16:14-15 with the migration of the so many Jews to Jerusalem, even much of the buildings in this old part of the city stood empty. But nothing is empty today. Today Jerusalem is a divided city. There is the section inhabited by Jews. There is a section inhabited by Arabs. There is also a Christian section.

Evidence from the Temple at Jerusalem
Today there is great interest in anything associated with the temple mount in Jerusalem. For example, in Israel wedding invitations are printed giving the temple as the location, with the stipulation, that should the temple still be uncompleted by the wedding date, the wedding will be held at a different address. Among many Jews there is an expectation that the temple will be built soon. Amos 9:11

The Temple Scroll
A few years ago the late Professor Yigael Yadin translated for the world the famous 27 foot long Temple Scroll which was a part of the amazing finds in Qumran. Cave 4 This material gave the world the most detailed information about the building and its design and use. I am looking at a plot plan for the temple made exclusively from this scroll. Biblical Archeological Review, V. XIII, No. 6, Nov/Dec 1987, Magen Broshi, pp. 36-37 I am looking at some detailed color photographs taken of the scroll before it was unrolled ibid. p. 23 and later as it appeared unrolled. ibid. p. 29 Parts of the scroll were damaged, but the damage was repaired. Photo Joseph Shenhav and Ruth Yekutiel of the Israel Museum assembling these damaged fragments. ibid. p. 30

The Temple Institute
Religious Jews are studying these ancient priestly rites in the Temple Institute in preparation for rebuilding the temple. Zech 12:2-3; Mt 24:15-18 Two Talmudic schools are training 200 descendants of Levi for the coming temple services. Intricate vessels for animal sacrifice are being fabricated. As of 1994, 38 vessels had been completed with 65 left to construct. The uniforms for the high priest and the attending priests have been constructed according to the precise formulas (flax is hand spun to exact criteria). Hundreds of musical instruments from Bible times have been built. The Temple Institute has approved the find of some pure "red heifer cattle" so that the required cleansing processes for the priests can begin. Num 19:1-10; Planet Earth 2000, Western Front Ltd., Hal Lindsey, pp. 156-157

ASHKELON
Ashkelon is mentioned as a Philistine Pentapolis [Josh 13:3, cf. 1 Sam 6:4, 17]. This site is also mentioned by David at Saul and Jonathan’s death [2 Sam 1:20]. This was a tributary to Assyria until the late 8th century. Extra biblical texts like the Amarna texts and Egyptian Execration Texts mention Ashkelon. Between 1921-1922 J. Garstang and W. J. Adams discovered stratified evidence of the Philistine culture.

From 1985 to present times L. Stager has been researching the site for Harvard Semitic Museum. Discoveries have been made from the 4th millennium B.C. through the 13th century A.D.

GEZER
Gezer is an important Biblical city. It was mentioned in the Battle of Makkedah in Aijalon Valley [Josh 10:33, 12:12]. We next see it being allotted to Ephraim [Josh 16:3, 10, Jud 1:29, 1 Chr 6:67, 7:28]. It was given to the Levites [Josh 21:21]. David battled for this city [2 Sam 5:25, 1 Chr 14:16, 20:4]. It was given to Solomon [1 King 9:15-17] who fortified it like Megiddo, Hazor and Jerusalem. It was later important in the intertestamental period [1 Macc 9:52, 13:43-48, 53].

Extra biblical sources mention Gezer such as the inscriptions on the Great Wall of Amon at Karnak during the reign of Thutmos III [1490-1436 BC]. It is also prominent in the Amarna texts. It is mentioned in the famous Merneptah Stele [1207 BC].

Gezer was excavated by R.A.S. Macalister between 1902 and 1909. Later between 1964-1990 Hebrew Union College Biblical and Archaelogical School excavated this site. Walls, gates and large architectural features have been located.

HAZOR
Hazor is mentioned as the reigning place of King Jabin of Canaan [Jud 4:2] who fought against Joshua at the waters of Merom [Josh 11:7]. Solomon introduced forced labor at this city [1 King 9:15]. Solomon fortified this city in his reign. It was destroyed by Tiglath-pilesar III of Assyria in 733 BC in the reign of Pekah [2 King 15:29].

Extra biblical Egyptian texts of the 19th and 18th centuries mention Hazor as a major trading center. Babylonian Amarna texts of 14th century speak of Abdi-Tirshi king of Hazor planning to join the Habiru.

Garstang made important excavations in 1928 dating Hazor’s destruction to 1400 BC. J. A. de Rothschild Expedition between 1954, 58, and 1966-69 had excavations directed by Y. Yadin.

HESHBON
The first biblical reference regards the city of Sihon king of the Amorites [Num 21:21-30, Deu 2:16-17, Josh 12:2]. Their borders with Moab changed regularly [Jud 11:12-28].

Excavators call Heshbon Tell Hesban. Between 1968 and 1976 Andrews Heshbon Excavation has worked this site with S. H. Horn and L. T. Geraty. They have discovered reservoirs and fortifications. They also found Roman tombs in their cemetery.

JAMES BROTHER OF JESUS OSSUARY

Historical Note

Date: First Century Location: Palestine Researchers have uncovered the first archaeological evidence that refers to Jesus as an actual person and identifies James, the first leader of the Christian church, as his brother. "This is probably going to be the biggest New Testament find in my lifetime, as big as the Dead Sea scrolls," said Ben Witherington, a New Testament professor at Asbury Theological Seminary in Wilmore, Kentucky. Reference: Andre Lemaire, a paleographer at the Sorbonne University in Paris (École Pratique des Hautes Études). NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC NEWS Hillary Mayell, National Geographic News, October 21, 2002. http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2002/10/1021_021021_christianrelicbox.html 10-25-02, 8:59 AM BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGICAL NEWS November/December 2002 issue of Biblical Archaeology Review. http://www.bib-arch.org/bswb_BAR/bswbbar2806f1.html 10/21/02 6:28:47 PM

Twentieth First Century Technologies in Archeology

1. "The application of aerial photography to archaeological investigation began in a small way during World War I, as a side effect of military reconnaissance, and was given further impetus by World War II; the photographic intelligence departments of all the combatant nations were extensively staffed by archaeologists, who then carried their expertise and enthusiasm into the postwar years. The University of Cambridge now has its own department of air photography under J.K.S. St Joseph: using its own pilot and aircraft, it flies photographic missions." Encyclopedia Britannica

2. "Deep probes have made it possible to trace walls and ditches. The Lerici Foundation of Milan and Rome has had great success with this method since its development of the Nistri periscope, first used in 1957 in an Etruscan tomb in the cemetery of Monte Abbatone. The periscope is inserted into the burial chamber and can photograph the walls and contents of the whole tomb." Encyclopedia Britannica

3. "Magnetic methods of prospecting detect buried features by locating the magnetic disturbances they cause: these were introduced in 1957-58 and use such machines as the proton magnetometer, the proton gradiometer, and the fluxgate gradiometer. An American expedition discovered the site of Sybaris in Sicily by magnetic prospecting. Electromagnetic methods have been in use only since 1962; they employ developments of the concepts used in mine detectors. Instruments such as the pulsed-induction meter and the soil-conductivity meter detect magnetic soil anomalies, but only if the features are fairly shallow." Encyclopedia Britannica

4. "Underwater archaeology is a branch of reconnaissance and excavation that has been developed only during the 20th century. It involves the same techniques of observation, discovery, and recording that are the basis of archaeology on land, but adapted to the special conditions of working underwater. It is obvious that no archaeologist working on submarine sites can get far unless he is trained as a diver. Helmeted sponge divers have made most of the important archaeological discoveries in the Mediterranean. The French scientist Jacques-Yves Cousteau developed the self-contained breathing apparatus known as the scuba, of which the most commonly used type is the aqualung. Cousteau's work at Le Grand Congloué near Marseille was a pioneer underwater excavation, as was the work of the Americans Peter Throckmorton and George Bass off the coast of southern Turkey. In 1958 Throckmorton found a graveyard of ancient ships at Yass Ada and then discovered the oldest shipwreck ever recorded, at Cape Gelidonya--a Bronze Age shipwreck of the 14th century BC. George Bass of the University of Pennsylvania worked on a Byzantine wreck at Yass Ada from 1961 onward, developing the mapping of wrecks photogrammetrically with stereophotographs and using a two-man submarine, the "Asherah," launched in 1964. The "Asherah" was the first submarine ever built for archaeological investigation." Encyclopedia Britannica "According the first century historian Josephus, Herod built Caesarea between 22 and 10 B.C. on the site of an earlier Phoenician and Helenistic trading station known as Strato's Tower and named it in honor of his patron, Caesar Augustus. The large artificial harbor Herod built there made the city a major port, the only all weather haven for ships on his kingdom's Meditarranean coast. The harbor could hold the entire Roman fleet and was noted in antiquity as an engineering marvel. Since the 1950's, the site has yielded a vast assortment of statuary, inscriptions [including one bearing the name of the Roman governor Pontius Pilate], coins, mosaics, and ceramics as well as botanical and zoological samples. Recent excavations have centered around the harbor, where divers have uncovered Herod's original harbor and later harbors that were built on top of it." Biblical Archeological Review, vol. 25, no. 1, p. 53-54 see cover photo Current underwater excavation is also beginning at Alexandria Egypt where divers are discovering evidence for the famed lighthouse. Shelley Wachsmann is a nautical archaeologist who teaches at Texas A&M University's Nautical Archaeology Program, located in College Station, Texas. Wachsmann's work focuses on seafaring in the Bronze and Early Iron Ages [c. 3000-1000 B.C.] and on biblical archaeology. My field research in Israel is carried out under the auspices of the Institute of Nautical Archaeology. National Geographic

5. "The greatest revolution in prehistoric archaeology occurred in 1948, when Willard F. Libby, at the University of Chicago, developed the process of radioactive carbon dating. In this method, the activity of radioactive carbon (carbon-14) present in bones, wood, or ash found in archaeological sites is measured. Because the rate at which this activity decreases in time is known, the approximate age of the material can be determined by comparing it to carbon-14 activity in presently living organic matter. There have been problems and uncertainties about the application of the radioactive carbon method, but, although it is less than perfect, it has given archaeology a new and absolute chronology that goes back 40,000 years." Encyclopedia Britannica

6. "Following the revolutionary discovery of radioactive carbon dating, other physical techniques of absolute dating were developed, among them potassium-argon dating and dating by thermoluminescence. Potassium-argon dating has made it possible to establish that the earliest remains of man and his artifacts in East Africa go back at least 2,000,000 years, and probably further." Encyclopedia Britannica

7. DNA as archeological evidence. "The tool is DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), the master molecule that determines what a cell is and does. Read correctly it can tell us who we are, reveal our ancestors, and trace their migrations - aspects of our past that were unknowable a decade ago." Archeology, vol. 4, no. 5, Archaeological Institute of America Boston University, Powledge and Rose, 1996, p. 37

History of DNA and archeology. "In the late 1980's scientists at the Cetus Corporation developed the polymerase chain reaction (PCR), a quick and easy method for generating unlimited copies of any fragment of DNA. The process separates the double strand or helix of DNA into two single strands, then synthesizes complementary strands, producing two helixes each consisting of an original attached to a newly created one. Today's PCR machines cost a few thousand dollars and are about the size of a microwave oven. The second breakthrough came in 1989 and 1990 when research groups in England, Japan, and France successfully recovered DNA from preserved hard tissues, bones and teeth, that are durable and comparatively abundant. Archeology, vol. 4, no. 5, Archaeological Institute of America Boston University, Powledge and Rose, 1996, p. 37

National Geographic reported the use of DNA evidence in 1999. "DNA evidence has provided support for the claim of a southern African tribe that it descended from Judaism's priest caste. The Lemba are a black people who, like Jews, practice circumcision, don't eat pork, and observe a one-day-a-week Sabbath. Their oral traditions tell of migration from a wealthy valley far to the north, crossing a large body of water and traveling down the coast to resettle in southern Africa. They say they were led by a Jewish priest and believe themselves to be one of the lost tribes of Israel. Geneticists studied the DNA of American, Israeli, and English Jews who believed they were descendants of the priestly caste. The researchers hoped to determine whether there was any truth to the Jewish tradition that priests are the descendants of Aaron, the elder brother of Moses. Because the priesthood is passed from father to son, researchers examined the Y (male) chromosome. This chromosome is also passed from father to son, unchanged except for the occasional mutation. Those mutations allow geneticists to trace the lineage of men in a family. The researchers found one sequence of DNA on the Y chromosome that was present in 45 to 56 percent of the men who identified themselves as part of the hereditary caste of Jewish priests. The same genetic signature was present in only 3 to 5 percent of men in the general Jewish population. Going a step further, geneticists at the Center for Genetic Anthropology at University College, London, searched for the same DNA sequence appeared among men in the Lemba tribe. The priestly signature was found in 9 percent of men in the Lemba tribe. But among one Lemba group, the Bantu, the number of men with the gene mutation was 53 percent. Bantu oral history speaks of having left their homeland and following Buba, a Jewish priest, to Africa. The DNA evidence dovetails with work done by Tudor Parfitt, director of the Center for Jewish Studies at the School of Oriental and African Studies in London. Parfitt, a genetic anthropologist, first heard the Lemba tale of Jewish descent ten years ago and was intrigued. He has found an ancient city near Senna, Yemen, and believes it was the place from which the Lemba tribe departed. Parfitt estimates that the migration occurred around a thousand years ago." National Geographic Society, Hillary Mayell, 1999

National Geographic's Ice Maiden. The excavating of the "ice maiden" took place atop the Peruvian Andes. Researchers believe this young woman was unfortunate enough to have been sacrificed to ancient Peruvian gods. "Radiologist and pathologists at Johns Hopkins Hospital in Baltimore Maryland performed an autopsy on the remains of the young woman in 1996. Scholars are still studying her at Catholic University of Arequipa under the direction of Jose' Antonio Chavez. Because the body was frozen "some of the best ancient DNA ever extracted" was found by Keith McKenney of the Institute for Genomic Research in Rockyville Maryland. He and Tracy Spriggs succeeded in isolating and sequencing two large regions of the "ice maiden's" DNA. They compared these sequences with entries in scientific databases. As expected, the "ice maiden," proved to be related to other Native Americans, but her closest kin appear to be the Ngobe people of Panama. But she also shared genetic patterns found in people from Taiwan and Korea, bolstering the hypothesis that the earliest Americans came from Asia." National Geographic, Johan Reinhard, "Sharp Eyes of Science Probe the Mummies of Peru," Jan. 1997, p. 36-43; ibid. Johan Reinhard, "Peru's Ice Maidens: Unwrapping the Secrets," June 1996, p. 62-81

Genealogy of Pharaohs ~ Scott Woodward
Writing for Archaeology, Scott Woodward associate professor of microbiology at Brigham Young University, reported, "Egyptologists have struggled with the genealogy of New Kingdom (1570 - 1070 B.C.) pharaohs for more than a century. Many royal mummies from this period have been identified, either by modern scholars or 20th Dynasty priests who rescued some of them from the depredations of tomb robbers. But we cannot always trust these identifications. The incomplete historical record is exacerbated by the fact that royal brothers and sisters, and even fathers and daughters, intermarried. Since 1993 I have analyzed DNA from the mummified remains of these pharaohs and queens, in cooperation iwth Nasry Iskander, chief curator of the royal mummified remains at the Egyptian Museum in Cairo." Archeology, vol. 4, no. 5, Archaeological Institute of America Boston University, Scott Woodard, 1996, p. 45 Woodward's analysis successfully identified the genealogy of more than a dozen pharaohs. ibid., p. 46-47

Summing Up the Evidence in Context
The entire Bible has not been "corroborated" through archeological discoveries. No one is expecting this kind of confirmation from this science. However, many conservative evangelical and Jewish archeologists have found sufficient corroborative evidences from their excavations in the field to give them reason to believe in the integrity of the Bible.

Evidence from Critics
Even liberal critics of the Bible recognize the compelling evidence from archeology. "Wellhausen seems to declare for the dominancy of archeology ... though he very much ignores it in the pages that follow." History of Israel, Wellhausen, p. 12 cited International Standard Bible Encyclopedia, vol. 1, p. 226

"Eerdmans, successor to Kuenen at Leyden, definitely and absolutely breaks with the Wellhausen school of criticism, chiefly on the ground that archeology has discredited their viewpoint and the historical atmosphere with which they have surrounded the Old Testament." International Standard Bible Encyclopedia, vol. 1, p. 226

"Wiener, the most prominent of recent Jewish critics, also believes ... archeology of the Bible itself, is clearly decisive in its influence on the issue raised by the Wellhausen school." BS, 1908-1910; International Standard Bible Encyclopedia, vol. 1, p. 226

Testimonies From Archeologists

International Standard Bible Encyclopedia. "The Bible at its face value is being corroborated wherever archeology immediately and definitely touches it. To illustrate this statement fully would be to cite every definite piece of archeological evidence in the Biblical field of scientific research during the last one hundred years." International Standard Bible Encyclopedia, 1:233 Speaking to the critics the author states, "no one can point to a single definite particular of archeological evidence whereby any one of these theories is positively sustained and corroborated." ibid.

M.G. Kyle
The Historical Setting. M.G. Kyle wrote, "Archeology furnishes the true historical setting of Scripture. The innumerable literary remains of Egypt and Babylonia ... exhibiting to a marked degree the literary peculiarities of the Old Testament." International Standard Bible Encyclopedia, 1:227

Bernhard W. Anderson
Bernhard W. Anderson, Professor of Old Testament at Boston University's School of Theology wrote, "Biblical archeology's greatest contribution has been to show that Biblical writings presuppose, and are illuminated by, the world of the ancient Near East, which is open to scientific study." Biblical Archeological Review, 1995, vol. 21, no. 3, p. 25

Claire Epstein
Claire Epstein, of Israel's Department of Antiquities and Museums, writes, "The last 20 years have seen a change of emphasis from the study of and search for evidence relating to kings and rulers to a study of the lifestyle of the common man. A new generation of archeologists using sophisticated modern methods in the field, combined with the expertise of specialists in related scientific research, has likewise contributed to advancing our interpretation of excavated data." Biblical Archeological Review, 1995, vol. 21, no. 3, p. 26

Israel Finkelstein
Israel Finkelstein, Professor of archeology at Tel Aviv University, wrote, "The greatest achievement of the formative period of Biblical archeology was to demonstrate the power of archeology for reconstructing the Biblical scene. Another achievement of this formative period was the establishment of a chronological and terminological framework for Palestinian archeology. The new Biblical archeology ... can be defined as free of ‘text-bias' ... yet it does not ignore the text." Biblical Archeological Review, 1995, vol. 21, no. 3, p. 27

Menahem Mansoor
Menahem Mansoor, Professor emeritus at the University of Wisconsin where he founded the Department of Hebrew and Semitic Studies writes, "Biblical archeology has recovered from the sands and caves of the Near East some exciting discoveries such as Jericho, the Dead Sea Scrolls, Ugarit, Ebla, Addadian texts and more. The past 100 years have added quite a few centuries to the story of the growth of mankind's Western culture and the Judeo-Christian religious heritage. Biblical archeology has greatly enhanced the study of the Biblical texts and its history. Accuracy has been assured by the thorough way in which the natural and physical sciences have become essential partners in the excavations and in the interpretation of the finds." Biblical Archeological Review, 1995, vol. 21, no. 3, p. 29

Amihai Mazar
Amihai Mazar, Professor of archeology at Hebrew University writes, "Biblical archeolog's greatest achievement cannot be defined as a single great discovery, though there have been incredible discoveries like the Dead Sea Scrolls. Biblical archeology's greatest achievement is the extent to which it has flourished in Israel. I know of no other country in the world where, relative to the size of the population, there are as many archeologists, archeological programs, academic departments of archeology, students of archeology and archeological museums." Biblical Archeological Review, 1995, vol. 21, no. 3, p. 30

Ya'akov Meshorer
Ya'akov Meshorer, Professor of archeology at Hebrew University and chief curator of archeology at the Israel Museum in Jerusalem has written, "It seems to me that in recent decades Biblical research has become totally dependent on archeological finds. The study of archeology involves the knowledge and understanding of ancient civilizations, which sometimes differ tremendously from each other. Biblical archeology can no longer be considered a one man show. Every discipline demands its own unique research, and it is no longer accepted that an archeologist can combine the knowledge of all these various civilizations. Experts must be consulted for each of the finds unearthed by a given archeologist." Biblical Archeological Review, 1995, vol. 21, no. 3, p. 30

Keith Schoville
Keith Schoville, Professor of Hebrew and Semitic studies at the University of Wisconsin writes, "Biblical archeology's greatest achievement has been to bring the past into the present, to clothe the imaginary with robes of reality. Archeology recovers bits and pieces of a world that we can see, touch, feel and even taste." Biblical Archeological Review, 1995, vol. 21, no. 3, p. 31

David Ussishkin
David Ussishkin, Professor of archeology at Tel Aviv University writes, "Biblical archeology is a technical, subsidiary discipline. Its duty is to find factual data and to provide their immediate interpretation, but no more. Once the archeological data has been uncovered and studied in an unbiased manner, they should be presented as ‘raw material' to the Biblical scholar, the historian, the sociologist or the art historian for integration and broader interpretation in their own studies. Archeological data provide clear indications relevant to certain Biblical accounts. In general, the evidence of material culture fits the Biblical account beginning with the period of the settlement of the tribes of Israel in the land of Canaan and the establishment of the kingdom of Israel. Hence, archeological data are consistent with the view that at least this part of the Biblical account is, in general, true and historically based." Biblical Archeological Review, 1995, vol. 21, no. 3, p. 32

Bryant G. Wood
Bryant G. Wood, who taught at the Toronto Baptist Seminary writes, "The purpose of Biblical archeology is to enhance our comprehension of the Bible, and so its greatest achievement, in my view, has been the extraordinary illumination of the Iron Age II period, that is, the time of the Israelite monarchy, c. 1000-586 B.C. So rich are the discoveries that Philip King has written archeological commentaries on the eighth century prophets Amos, Hosea and Micah and the late seventh century prophet Jeremiah. We have epigraphic, architectural and artifactual discoveries that illuminate Biblical history, culture and life." Biblical Archeological Review, 1995, vol. 21, no. 3, p. 33

Edwin Yamauchi
Edwin Yamauchi, Professor of history at Miami University in Oxford Ohio writes, "As a historian, I am especially interested in the recovery of ancient texts. Many of the great text discoveries, such as the Amarna tablets, the Nag-Hammadi codices in Egypt, and the Dead Sea Scrolls at Qumran, were not made by professional archeologists. Some discoveries were made by scholars in museum storerooms, such as Alan Millard's finding of the Atrahasis Epic in the British Museum. In a few cases, specific texts have been recovered archeologists. Some of these helped to confirm Biblical passages that had been questioned by critics." Biblical Archeological Review, 1995, vol. 21, no. 3, p. 35

TRUTH: Truth Reality and Scripture

Jesus is the Truth
John 14:6
Jesus answered, "I am the way and the truth and the life. No one comes to the Father except through me.

Believers Walk in the Truth
2 John 1:3-4
Grace, mercy and peace from God the Father and from Jesus Christ, the Father's Son, will be with us in truth and love. It has given me great joy to find some of your children walking in the truth, just as the Father commanded us.

What Is Truth?
This simple question Pilate asked Jesus Jn 18:38 still lies at the root of much controversy. Once nearly everyone agreed about the meaning of truth, but today there are two schools of thought.

Columbia Dictionary Definition:
Truth is conformable to fact; not being false or erroneous; free from falsehood. Genuine not counterfeit, false or pretended. Firm or steady in adhering to promises. Exact, correct, right, conformable to law and justice; legitimate; rightful. Truth is the state or quality of being true; conformity to fact or reality. Truth is knowable. Truth is describable. Truth is objective not subjective. Webster's Columbia Concise Dictionary, Columbia Educational Books, Chicago, 1942; p. 775

Western civilization historically thought of truth as being foundationally connected to God. The Bible says God is truth. Jn 8:32; 14:6 Since God created heaven and earth, and God is truth, truth has always been considered adequate to describe reality. In our courtrooms we placed our hand upon the Bible and swore to, tell the whole truth, and nothing but the whole truth so help us God.

Oxford Dictionary:
Truth is exact, faithful, honest, loyal, firm, right, lawful, legitimate, authentic, genuine, virtuous, reliable, fidelity, trustworthy and constant. Truth conforms and agrees with reality. It represents something exactly and precisely because truth is free from deceit. Truth agrees with a standard, pattern, or rule accurately, precisely and correctly. Truth is faithful to a principle.

Truth is not counterfeit, spurious or imaginary. Truth is genuine as distinguished from an imitation. Compact Edition Oxford English Dictionary, Oxford Press, 1986, V. 2, p. 3419-3420, 3424. Many of these definitions have been marked to indicate the meaning is now "obsolete."

Truth is defined as being absolute, objective, knowable, and learnable. Right From Wrong, p. 17-19

More Definitions
Truth is objective. Objective means it is external to the mind. It is not based on feeling or individuality. Webster's Columbian Concise Dictionary, p. 493

Truth is absolute. Absolute means it is freed from any limitation or condition. It is unconditional, self existing, complete in itself, and finished. ibid. p. 3

Truth is not subjective. Subjective means it belong's to one's own mind. It is not external. It is characterized by the personality of the individual. ibid. p. 720

Truth is universal. Universal means that it pervades everywhere, it is all embracing, all reaching, total, whole, and it extends throughout the universe. ibid. p. 791, Right From Wrong, Word, 1994, Josh McDowell, Note the chapter titled: What Is Absolute Truth? pp. 17-20

BIBLICAL ROOTS OF TRUTH

DECEPTION

Deception: is the act of deceiving or misleading. It also describes the state of mind of those who are deceived. Webster's Columbia Concise Dictionary, p. 191

Deceit: describes the mental process (strategy) which underlies an action taken to deceive. ibid.

Fraud: an act or course of deception deliberately practiced with the view of gaining an unlawful or unfair benefit at the expense of others. ibid. p. 297

Deceive: is to intentionally mislead the mind of someone so as to cause them to 1) believe something that is false, or 2) disbelieve something that is true. These words carry with them a sense of delusion, ensnaring, tricking or cheating people through misleading them. ibid. p. 191

Three Historic Attacks Against the "Truth"

2. Attack on truth in 1960 by Hans-Georg Gadamer: "Truth cannot reside in the reader's attempt to get back to the author's meaning, for this ideal cannot be realized because every interpreter has a new and different knowledge of the text in the reader's own historical moment." Hans-Georg Gadamer, "Truth and Method of Philosophical Hermeneutics," English trans., New York, Seabury, 1975, reprint Crossroad, 1982

3. Attack on truth in 1965 by Paul Riceur: "A text is semantically independent of the intention of its author. The text now means whatever is says, not necessarily what its author had meant. Once texts have been written, their meanings are no longer determined by the understanding the original audiences had of those same texts. Each subsequent audience may now read its own situation into the text, for a text, unlike talk, transcends its original circumstances." Paul Racer, "Interpretation Theory: Discourses and the Surplus of Meaning," English trans. Forth Worth, Tex., Texas Christian University Press, 1976

TRUTH IN ITS MODERN CONTEXT

New definition of Truth
It is relative, subjective, and situational. ibid. p. 20-21 This means truth can not be objective, knowable or learnable except on an individual basis. We express this concept when we say things like, "That seems fine for you, but it just doesn't seem to be true for me." This anarchistic view of truth is divisive. Once people debated and discussed things to uncover truth. Now everyone is right even those with opposing views.

This new truth changes according to situation, circumstance, or cultural backdrop. This is the definition of truth that produced the situational ethics that allowed Hitler's Germany to destroy six million Jews. The new truth, by definition, is insufficient for describing reality. The Great Ideas A Syntopicon, Britannica Great Books, v. 3, p. 934, 7a note this subtitle "The impossibility of knowing the truth..." These are the people cited by this syntopicon: Plato, Aristotle, Lucretius, Epictetus, Augustine, Aquinas, Montaigne, Bacon, Descartes, Pascal, Berkeley, Hume, Kant, Hegel, Goethe, Marx-Engels, Tolstoy, James, and Freud.

Colossians 2:8
Beware lest any man spoil you through philosophy and vain deceit, after the tradition of men, after the rudiments of the world, and not after Christ.

Truth & Consequences

The teachings about the new truth have been affective. What Americans Believe, Regal, 1991, George Barna. Note results of the Barna Research Group, Ltd. survey which was reviewed by George Gallup. Only 28% strongly believe in absolute truth. Another 39% agree in a limited way. Only 16% strongly disbelieve absolute truth, p. 83-85

Statistics reveal that every kind of crime has surged. In less than three decades America has become an unsafe environment. Our prisons are filled to overflowing. Places like shopping malls, public schools, workplaces and the home have become scenes of gruesome crimes of violence. By defining everything personally, and nothing universally great divisions have risen in our culture.

Some say they feel comfortable following these kinds of "intuition." Others point to social criteria for determining truth. They look at customs, traditions, and that comfort level they receive from maintaining agreement with the consensus of their community. But without a higher standard for testing truth this leaves an open door for rejecting the reality of Jesus Christ while accepting leaders like Mary Baker Eddy, Jim Jones, David Koresh, Charles Manson, or Joseph Smith. A Christian Approach To Philosophy, p. 47-52

It seems too obvious to state, but we need to remind ourselves that just because someone "thinks" their belief system reflects reality is an insufficient test of truth. Many today are saying that because their belief system produces some benefits this proves it must be a true reflection of reality (pragmatism). How much reliance can we place on these kinds of feelings or statements without becoming fertile soil for cults to thrive.

An Example Of A Truth Test

TRUTH TEST NO. 1

THE REALITY TEST

Some things they will say must be accepted by faith. But of the things that you can verify, will they stand up under careful scrutiny? Here is a good rule, if everything you can investigate falls apart under scrutiny, it is safe to assume that everything they want you to accept by faith will also fall apart. It is important that we make our investigation based on an assumption: a universal body of truth exists in God that is reliable throughout his creation. There is no where in creation where his laws are suspended.

TRUTH TEST NO. 2

THE STANDARD TEST

It may seem too obvious to mention, but is important to note that the National Bureau of Standards houses many standards. If we want to measure length, voltage, volume, weight, or the intensity of light, these standards are there. We would not try and determine the length of an object using a volt meter. Use the right standard.

In matters of faith, God's Word is the only faithful and true standard available to us.

God's Word Settled In Heaven
For ever, O LORD, thy word is settled in heaven. Ps 119:89

God's Word Settled On Earth
He has remembered his covenant forever, the Word which he commanded to a thousand generations. Ps 105:8

God's Word Settled For Today
For the prophecy came not in old time by the will of men: but holy men of God spoke as they were moved by the Holy Spirit. 1 Pet 1:21

God's Word Settled For The Future
Heaven and earth shall pass away, but my Words shall not pass away. Mt 24:35

TESTS FOR ANCIENT TEXTS

TRUTH TEST NO. 3

THE BIBLIOGRAPHICAL TEST

The bibliographic test has been used by scholars throughout the world for thousands of years to evaluate ancient texts. This test is limited. It questions whether the text being examined is the same as the original text as recorded by the author. It does not address any issues about the credibility of the content of that text. This test will work equally well with manuscripts of Homer's Iliad as it will with a book from the Bible.

As we look at this test remember how well the New Testament did: It was written between 40 and 100 A.D. Its earliest copy dated from 125 A.D. This leaves a conservative time span of 25 years at the latest (some scholars believe this period was only 10 or 15 years). The number of copies were numbered at over 24,000. When we compare that record with the next most famous case from antiquity we see Homer's Iliad written in 900 B.C. with the earliest copy dating from 400 B.C. which leaves a timespan of 500 years. The number of copies the Iliad had were 643. No serious critic doubts either of these documents. Go back to chapter 4 and review the record of many other ancient writings. Also go back and look at the number of Old and New Testament manuscripts.

TRUTH TEST NO. 4

THE INTERNAL EVIDENCE TEST

a. Aristotle's Rule: when an apparent discrepancy or inaccuracy seems to occur within the text, the benefit of the doubt is always given to the text. Don't rush into judgement before studying this discrepancy which needs to be fully proved or disproved. A Ready Defense, p. 51 "One must listen to the claims of the document under analysis, and not assume fraud or error unless the author disqualified himself by contradictions or known factual inaccuracies." John W. Montgomery. History And Christianity, p. 29; as cited in A Ready Defense, p. 51

b. Is the author or witness credible? Dr. Louis Gottschalk, professor of history at the University of Chicago outlines his historical method as a guide used by people investigating the credibility of ancient texts. "Gottschalk points out that the ability of the writer or the witness to tell the truth is helpful..." to the persons determining credibility. A Ready Defense, p. 51-52

c. How close was the author or witness to the events recorded both geographically and chronologically? "The New Testament accounts of the life and teaching of Jesus were recorded by men who had been either eyewitnesses themselves or who related the accounts of eyewitnesses of the actual events or teachings of Jesus." ibid. p. 52 Lets look at some New Testament examples:

John
1 John 1:3
We have seen and heard we proclaim to you also, that you also may have fellowship with us; and indeed our fellowship is with the Father, and with his Son Jesus Christ.

Peter
2 Peter 1:16
For we did not follow cleverly devised tales when we made known to you the power and coming of our Lord Jesus Christ, but we were eyewitnesses of his majesty.

Luke
Luke 1:1-3
Inasmuch as many have undertaken to compile an account of the things accomplished among us, just as those who from the beginning were eyewitnesses and servants of the Word have handed them down to us, it seemed fitting for me as well, having investigated everything carefully from the beginning, to write it out for you in consecutive order, most excellent Theophilus. see also Lk 3:1

Example Of Credibility

"Despite the prejudices and theological preconceptions of the evangelists, they record many incidents that mere inventors would have concealed...." Story of Civilization, v.3, Caesar and Christ, p. 557

Will Durant credited Jesus' disciples as gaining in credibility by including narratives of their own unattractive character weaknesses. He noted for example the, "...competition of the apostles for high places in the Kingdom, their flight after Jesus' arrest, Peter's denial, the failure of Christ to work miracles in Galilee, the references of some auditors to his possible insanity ...No one reading these scenes can doubt the reality of the figure behind them. That a few simple men should in one generation have invented so powerful and appealing a personality, so lofty an ethic and so inspiring a vision ...would be a miracle far more incredible than any recorded in the Gospels. After two centuries of higher criticism the...life character, and teaching of Christ...CONSTITUTE THE MOST FASCINATING FEATURE IN THE HISTORY OF WESTERN MAN." ibid. Consider the power of this quote in context with the reality that Durant was no Christian. He dropped out of seminary as an unbeliever. A Dual Autobiography, p. 32-33, 35-36 His belief system lay in his hope for a socialist utopia. Durant died by suicide.

TRUTH TEST NO. 5

THE EXTERNAL EVIDENCE TEST

Accuracy: is in exact conformity to truth, a standard, a rule, or to a model. It is free from all error or defect. It is exact, precise, and correct. Webster's Columbia Concise Dictionary, p. 6

Reliability: this is that confidence that comes when the text has proven satisfactory as to veracity, integrity, and certainty regarding facts or evidence. ibid. p. 611

Authenticity: means the text is exactly what it purports to be. It is not false or fictitious. It is genuine and valid. When applied to a document it means it can be relied on as narrating real facts. ibid. p. 49

Examples Of External Evidence

Archeology is a powerful external witness which can contribute confirmation to ancient texts (see chapters 7 and 8). The rules for historicity are excellent for confirming ancient texts, "After personally trying, as a skeptic myself, to shatter the historicity and validity of the Scriptures, I had to conclude that they actually are historically trustworthy. If a person disregards the Bible as unreliable in this sense, then he must discard almost all the literature of antiquity." A Ready Defense, Josh McDowell, p. 55

TRUTH TEST RESULTS