Geisler and Nix offer criteria that can be used to determine whether or not an ancient book was canonical and should be included in Scripture. From God to Us, Moody Press, 1974, Norman Geisler and William Nix, p.63-64 cf. A Ready Defense, Josh McDowell, p. 39 "The existence of a canon or collection of authoritative writings antedates the use of the term canon. The Jewish community collected and preserved their Holy Scriptures from the time of Moses." ibid.

1. Is the book "sacred?"

"One of the earliest concepts of canon was that of sacred writings. That the writings of Moses were considered sacred is indicated by the holy place in which they were stored beside the Ark of the Covenant. Deu 31:24-26 After the temple was built, these sacred writings were preserved in it. 2 Kings 22:8 The special accord granted to these select books alone indicates that they were considered to be canonical or sacred writing." From God to Us, Moody Press, 1974, Norman Geisler and William Nix, p.63 "For He remembered His holy word." Psalm 105:42

2. Is the book "authoritative?"

Did it come from the hand of God? Is the message of the book, "thus saith the Lord?" "The divine authority of Scripture is another designation of its canonicity. The authority of the Mosaic writings was impressed on Joshua and Israel. Josh 1:8 Since the books came from God they were invested with His authority. As authoritative writings they were canonical for the Jewish believer." From God to Us, Moody Press, 1974, Norman Geisler and William Nix, p.63

3. Does the book "defile the hands?"

Geisler and Nix say, "in the teaching tradition of Israel there arose the concept of books so holy or sacred that those who used them had "defiled their hands." The Talmud says, "the Gospel and the books of the heretics do not make the hands unclean; "the books of Ben Sira and whatever books have been written since his time are not canonical." Tosefta Yadaim 3:5 "The books of the Hebrew Old Testament, by contrast, do make the hands unclean because they are sacred. Hence only those books which demand that the user undergo a special ceremonial cleansing were regarded as canonical." From God to Us, Moody Press, 1974, Norman Geisler and William Nix, p.63-64

4. Is the book "prophetic?"

Geisler and Nix have written that "a book qualified as inspired only if it had been written by a prophetic spokesman of God. [Read chapter titled inspiration] The works of false prophets in non-prophetic books were rejected and not collected in a holy place. In fact according to Josephus only those books which were composed from Moses to Artaxerxes could be canonical. Contra Apion, 1:8 Geisler and Nix continue, "only the books from Moses to Malachi were canonical since only these were written by men in the prophetic succession." ibid. "During the period from Artaxerxes to Josephus there was no prophetic succession." Their research notes that "the Talmud makes the same claim, saying, ‘up to this point [fourth century B.C.] the prophets prophesied through the Holy Spirit; from this time onward incline thine ear and listen to the sayings of the wise.' Seder Olam Rabba 30" From God to Us, Moody Press, 1974, Norman Geisler and William Nix, p. 64

5. Is the book "dynamic?"

Does the book possess the life transforming power of God? From God to Us, Moody Press, 1974, Norman Geisler and William Nix, p.67 "For the word of God is living and active and sharper than any two-edged sword, and piercing as far as the division of soul and spirit, of both joints and marrow, and able to judge the thoughts and intentions of the heart." Heb 4:12 Because biblical books have such power they can be depended on "for teaching, for correcting, and for training in righteousness." 2 Tim 3:16-17

6. Is the book "authentic?"

Does it tell the truth about God, man, etc.? "Another hallmark of inspiration is authenticity. Any book with factual or doctrinal errors as judged by previous revelations could not be inspired of God." From God to Us, Moody Press, 1974, Norman Geisler and William Nix, p.67-68 Paul recommended the Bereans because they searched the Scriptures to determine the truthfulness of his teachings, "for they received the word with great eagerness, examining the Scriptures daily to see whether these things were so." Acts 17:11

7. Was it "received, collected, read and used"

by the people for whom it was originally directed? Was it recognized by these people has having come from God? From God to Us, Moody Press, 1974, Norman Geisler and William Nix, p.67 "The books of Moses were immediately accepted by the people of God. They were collected, quoted, preserved, and even imposed on future generations." From God to Us, Moody Press, 1974, Norman Geisler and William Nix, p.70 Geisler and Nix say their research has revealed "Paul's epistles were immediately received by the churches to whom they were addressed 1 Thess. 2:13 and even by other apostles." 2 Pet 3:16 From God to Us, Moody Press, 1974, Norman Geisler and William Nix, p.70 On the other hand Geisler and Nix say "some writers were immediately rejected by the people of God as lacking divine authority. 2 Thess 2:2 False prophets Mt 7:21-23 and lying spirits 1 Jn 4:1-3 were to be tested and rejected as indicated in many instances within the Bible itself." Jer 5:2; 14:14 From God to Us, Moody Press, 1974, Norman Geisler and William Nix, p.70

The theory that any book that agrees with the Torah should be canonized because it misses two important criteria: first it is not the Torah which determines canonicity of future books. Second this leaves too broad a doorway for canonicity. Many ancient Hebrew books were written which agree with the Torah but they were not inspired. Geisler and Nix in their research have found that "the Jewish fathers believed their Talmud and Midrash agreed with the Torah but never pronounced them canonical." From God to Us, Moody Press, 1974, Norman Geisler and William Nix, p.65

"False books and false writings were not scarce. Their ever present threat made it necessary for the people of God to carefully review their sacred collection. Even books accepted by other believers or in earlier days were subsequently brought into question by the church." From God to Us, Moody Press, 1974, Norman Geisler and William Nix, p.67

ISBE CANON OLD TESTAMENT

The Old Testament's Witness to Itself (circa 1450-444 BC): Thus in it is stated that the "testimony," by which is meant the two tables of the Law containing the Ten Commandments, was put into the Ark of the Covenant for safe-keeping.

In , the laws of Deuteronomy are said to have been delivered to the sons of Levi, and by them deposited "by the side of the ark .... that it may be there for a witness against thee." Such language indicates that the new lawbook is regarded "as a standard of faith and action" (Driver, Dt, 343).

According to <1 Kin 8:9>, when Solomon brought the Ark up from the city of David to the Temple, the two tables were still its only contents, which continued to be carefully preserved. According to <2 Kin 11:12>, when Joash was crowned king, Jehoiada the high priest is said to have given (literally "put upon") him "the testimony," which doubtless contained "the substance of the fundamental laws of the covenant," and was regarded as "the fundamental charter of the constitution" (compare H. E. Ryle, Canon of the Old Testament 45).

Likewise in , it is stated that a large number of proverbs were copied out by Hezekiah's men. Now all these, and still other passages which might be summoned, witness to the preservation of certain portions of the Old Testament. But preservation is not synonymous with canonization. A writing might easily be preserved without being made a standard of faith and conduct. Nevertheless the two ideas are closely related; for, when religious writings are sedulously preserved it is but natural to infer that their intrinsic value was regarded as correspondingly precious. [International Standard Bible Encylopaedia].

Scholars and historians agree that by Jesus' day, the Old Testament contained the same material as our modern Old Testaments. Hebrew versions were laid out differently. Books in the Hebrew version were combined differently. The names of the books in the Hebrew version were different.

Before the discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls many doubted an ancient "canon" of the Old Testament. Today however scholars say the material substance of the Old Testament Jesus and the apostles quoted from is the same that modern readers study. These collections of books were not chosen or selected by an ecclesiastical body. Syst Theo 1:92

1. The Law (Torah Strong's No. 8451)

2. The Prophets (Nebiim Strong's No. 5030)

b. Latter Prophets:

1. Major prophets: Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel

2. Minor prophets: Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi

3. The Writings (Kethubim Strong's No. 3789)

b. Five Scrolls: Song of Solomon, Ruth, Lamentations, Ecclesiastes, and Esther

c. Historical Books: Daniel, Ezra, Nehemiah and Chronicles

Agreement in Content

Dr. Merrill Unger writes of the ancient divisions in the canon of the Old Testament, "The name of the first of the three divisions of the Hebrew canon -- Torah (Law), Nebiim (Prophets), and Kethubim (Writings). The Torah, or Law, comprises the five books of Moses, which were the mainstay of Judaism." New Unger's Bible Dictionary, Moody Press, Chicago, Illinois, 1988 Modern Jews have enlarged the word "Torah" so that today when Jewish scholars use the word to make it refer to the entire body of written Judaism including centuries of rabbinical commentaries and liturgies. New Unger's Bible Dictionary, Moody Press Chicago

The Old Testament of Jesus' day was divided into three sections, "Now He said to them, "These are My words which I spoke to you while I was still with you, that all things which are written about Me in the Law of Moses and the Prophets and the Psalms must be fulfilled." Luke 24:44 Dr. Unger writes that the Old Testament itself and later Apocryphal authors referred to the Old Testament text as "the books," (LXX, bibloi, Dan. 9:2), "the holy books" (1 Macc. 12:9), "the books of the law" (1 Macc 1:56), "book of the covenant." (1 Macc 1:57). In the prologue to Ecclesiasticus the Scriptures are referred to as "the law, the prophets, and the other books (biblia) of our fathers." New Unger's Bible Dictionary, Moody Press, Chicago Dr. Unger refers to these divisions as, "the Jewish technical division of "the Law," "the Prophets," and the "Psalms" or "writings." Luke 24:44 Dr. Unger identified another term used in the New Testament to mean the whole of the Old Testament is "the Law and the Prophets." Acts 13:15; cf. Matt. 5:17; 11:13 Occasionally in the New Testament Dr. Unger has found that the term Law is used to mean all three divisions. John 10:34; 1 Cor. 14:21 [New Unger's Bible Dictionary, Moody Press, Chicago].

The LAW

Early Evidences for Canonizing the Law

Law Canonized at Moses' Death

Moses was commanded to "write" down the autograph copies of the Law so that it could be passed on for Joshua and later generations to copy. The decalogue was canonized, "Now the LORD said to Moses, "Cut out for yourself two stone tablets like the former ones, and I will write on the tablets the words that were on the former tablets which you shattered." Exod 34:1 "Then the LORD said to Moses, "Write this in a book as a memorial and recite it to Joshua." Exod 17:14 The written words of the Law constructed the covenant between God and His people, "Then the LORD said to Moses, "Write down these words, for in accordance with these words I have made a covenant with you and with Israel." Exod 34:27 The written words of the Law were placed within the most sacred object that God had given Israel,"I will write on the tablets the words that were on the former tablets which you shattered, and you shall put them in the ark.'" Deut 10:2 Future kings were to make manuscript copies of the Law for their own use, "Now it shall come about when he sits on the throne of his kingdom, he shall write for himself a copy of this law on a scroll in the presence of the Levitical priests." Deut 17:18 During the evil reigns of king Manasseh and Amon it appears that all manuscript copies of the Law had been lost only to be "rediscovered" by Hilkiah when it was publically read and "its teachings came as a great shock" because it had been forgotten in generations of misuse. 2 Kings 22-23; 2 Chron 34 Tyndale New Bible Dictionary, p 167

"You shall not add to the word which I am commanding you, nor take away from it, that you may keep the commandments of the LORD your God which I command you." Deut 4:2

"Whatever I command you, you shall be careful to do; you shall not add to nor take away from it." Deuteronomy 12:32

God Commanded Moses to Close the Canon of the Law

WORD BIBLICAL COMMENTARY

The term rbdh “the word,” here refers to the whole of the commandments of Yahweh. The “canonical formula” not to add or detract anything from the word of Yahweh has parallels in other ancient texts, such as the warning against altering the text in the treaty of Esarhaddon (see M. G. Kline, Treaty of the Great King [1963] 43). On earlier parallels in texts from the ancient Near East, see M. Fishbane, “Varia Deuteronomica,” ZAW 84 (1972) 349–52.

In the history of the Christian community Deut 4:2 has been used (along with 12:32 and Rev 22:18–19) as a commandment with reference to the canonical writings of both Testaments. Though it is true that mischief has been done by limiting the extent of the canon arbitrarily in this manner, there is an important principle here we need to retain. R. Laurin once insisted “that final canonization was an illegitimate closure of [the canonical] process by the community at one moment in its history” (in Tradition and Theology in the Old Testament, ed. D. A. Knight [Philadelphia: Fortress, 1977] 261). Be that as it may, God’s revelation is mediated to us primarily through the transmission of a sacred text within a worshiping community of faith. Once that text was fixed in its canonical written form, we would alter it by “adding to the word” or “detracting from it” to our own peril. Our primary task is to find ways to transmit that text effectively within our community and to interpret it responsibly and faithfully, even the most difficult parts of it. It remains the Word of God. We do well not to look beyond the Scriptures as we know them for texts to add to that body, but rather to examine each aspect of that sacred tradition against the whole of it. The canonical process continues, but in a rather different way—once the First Testament is incorporated into the larger Christian Bible in relation to the Second Testament and the ultimate revelation of God’s Word in the person of Jesus Christ. [Christensen, Duane L., Word Biblical Commentary, Volume 6A: Deuteronomy 1-11, (Dallas, Texas: Word Books, Publisher) 1998.]

KEIL & DELITZSCH

Law Itself Predicts Future Revelation
[Prophets -Writings] to Follow

Prophets, Kings & Priests Looked Backward to a Closed Law

King David taught his son Solomon a practical high view of the Law, "Keep the charge of the LORD your God, to walk in His ways, to keep His statutes, His commandments, His ordinances, and His testimonies, according to what is written in the Law of Moses, that you may succeed in all that you do and wherever you turn." 1 King 2:3

A later king Josiah also held a high view of Moses' Law, "Before him there was no king like him who turned to the LORD with all his heart and with all his soul and with all his might, according to all the law of Moses; nor did any like him arise after him." 2 Ki 23:25

The author of Second Kings summed up a historical respect for the Law, "Yet the LORD warned Israel and Judah through all His prophets {and} every seer, saying, "Turn from your evil ways and keep My commandments, My statutes according to all the law which I commanded your fathers, and which I sent to you through My servants the prophets." 2 Ki 17:13

When Daniel was carried captive into Nebuchadnezzar's court he maintained a high view of the Mosaic Law, "But Daniel made up his mind that he would not defile himself with the king's choice food or with the wine which he drank; so he sought {permission} from the commander of the officials that he might not defile himself." Dan 1:8 In Daniel's later years he wrote, "Indeed all Israel has transgressed Your law and turned aside, not obeying Your voice; so the curse has been poured out on us, along with the oath which is written in the law of Moses the servant of God, for we have sinned against Him." Dan 9:11 "As it is written in the law of Moses, all this calamity has come on us; yet we have not sought the favor of the LORD our God by turning from our iniquity and giving attention to Your truth." Dan 9:13

The priestly scribe Ezra, who God used when it was time to returned His people to Palestine, wrote that, "he was a scribe skilled in the law of Moses, which the LORD God of Israel had given." Ezra 7:6 "For Ezra had set his heart to study the law of the LORD and to practice it and to teach His statutes and ordinances in Israel." Ezra 7:10 "And all the people gathered as one man at the square which was in front of the Water Gate, and they asked Ezra the scribe to bring the book of the law of Moses which the LORD had given to Israel." Neh 8:1

Hosea wrote that, "my people are destroyed for lack of knowledge." He wrote that they had "forgotten the law of your God." Hosea 4:6 Amos repeated the theme claiming that God's people had "rejected the law of the LORD and have not kept His statutes." Amos 2:4 Micah wrote that, "from Zion will go forth the law, even the word of the LORD from Jerusalem." Micah 4:2 Habakkuk agreed looking back to the standard of God's Law and writing, "the law is ignored and justice is never upheld. For the wicked surround the righteous; therefore justice comes out perverted." Hab 1:4 Zephaniah documented the way Israel's, "prophets are reckless, treacherous men; her priests have profaned the sanctuary. They have done violence to the law." Zeph 3:4

Zechariah wrote how God's people had,"made their hearts like flint so that they could not hear the law and the words which the LORD of hosts had sent by His Spirit through the former prophets; therefore great wrath came from the LORD of hosts." Zech 7:12 Malachi upheld the purity of the Mosaic Law writing, "Remember the law of Moses My servant, even the statutes and ordinances which I commanded him in Horeb for all Israel." Mal 4:4

Psalmist & Wisdom Authors Look Backward to a Closed Law
The authors of the Psalms and Wisdom books looked back on the Mosaic Law as the standard for ethical behavior. "But his delight is in the law of the LORD, and in His law he meditates day and night." Psalm 1:2 "The law of the LORD is perfect, restoring the soul; the testimony of the LORD is sure, making wise the simple." Psalm 19:7 "The law of his God is in his heart; His steps do not slip." Psalm 37:31 "Those who forsake the law praise the wicked, but those who keep the law strive with them." Prov 28:4 "Where there is no vision, the people are unrestrained, but happy is he who keeps the law." Prov 29:18 The International Standard Bible Encylopaedia has written about the Writings that their teaching in, "The Books of Wisdom, Proverbs, Job, Ecclesiastes ... while not being particularly lofty it is healthy and practical, shrewd, homely common sense ... leading to earthly prosperity and worldly policy." Moral practice in these books "is also frequently allied with the fear of God, and the right choice of wisdom is represented as the dictate of piety not less than of prudence." International Standard Bible Encyclopedia

Joshua added his own prophetic writings to the Law setting it in the Tabernacle of the LORD. Josh 24:26 Samuel wrote his writings in a book and laid it up before the LORD. 1 Sam 10:25 Geisler and Nix say in Ezekiel's time there was "an official register of the prophets and their writings in the temple." Ezek 13:9 From God to Us, Moody Press, 1974, Norman Geisler and William Nix, p. 80 Daniel referred to "the books" containing the "Law of Moses," and "the prophets." Dan 9:2, 6 Geisler and Nix say "the writers of Kings and Chronicles were aware of many books by prophets which covered the whole of pre-exilic history." From God to Us, Moody Press, 1974, Norman Geisler and William Nix, p. 80 Geisler and Nix in their research have reported that "there appears to be a continuity among the writings themselves. Each of the leaders in the prophetic community seems to have linked his history to that of his predecessors to produce an unbroken chain of books." [From God to Us, Moody Press, 1974, Norman Geisler and William Nix, 81]

Nelson's Dates for the Prophetic Writings

Moses 1405 B.C.
Joshua 1405-1390 B.C.
Judges before 1004 B.C.
Samuel c. 900 B.C.
Obadiah 840 B.C.
Joel c. 835 B.C.
Jonah 782-753 B.C.
Amos between 760-753 B.C.
Hosea 755-710 B.C.
Isaiah between 740-680 B.C.
Micah 735-710 B.C.
Nahum 663-654 B.C.
Zephaniah 640-612 B.C.
Jeremiah 626-580 B.C.
Habakkuk between 609-605 B.C.
Daniel 605-538 B.C.
Ezekiel 593-570 B.C.
Haggai 520 B.C.
Zechariah between 480-470 B.C.
Ezra 457-444 B.C.
Nehemiah 430-420 B.C.
Malachi between 432-425 B.C.
[Nelson's Complete Book of Bible Maps & Charts 1996]

Geisler and Nix say the prophetic books "cover the entire history of the kings of Israel and Judah." Here are eight examples that they present as evidence: From God to Us, Moody Press, 1974, Norman Geisler and William Nix, p. 82

1. The history of Solomon was written by Samuel, Nathan and Gad. 1 Sam; 1 Chron 29:29

2. The history of Solomon was recorded by the prophets Nathan, Ahijah, and Iddo. 2 Chron 9:29

3. The acts of Rehoboam were written by Shemaiah and Iddo. 2 Chron 12:15

4. The history of Abijah was added by the prophet Iddo. 2 Chron 13:22

5. The story of Jehoshaphat's reign was recorded by Jehu the prophet. 2 Chron 33:19

6. The reign of Hezekiah was written by Isaiah the prophet. 2 Chron 32:32

7. The life of Manasseh was recorded by unnamed prophets. 2 Chron 33:19

8. The other kings also have their histories recorded by prophets. 2 Chron 35:27

The Old Testament scribe Baruch "tells us that Jeremiah had secretarial help. Speaking of Jeremiah, he confessed, ‘he dictated all these words to me, while I wrote them with ink on a scroll." Jer 36:18; cf. 45:1 From God to Us, Moody Press, 1974, Norman Geisler and William Nix, p. 82

"Daniel claims to have had access to the books of Moses and the prophets. From them he not only names Jeremiah but quotes his prediction of the seventy year captivity." Dan 9:2, 6, 11 cf. Jer 25 From God to Us, Moody Press, 1974, Norman Geisler and William Nix, p. 82-83

"After the Exile, Ezra the priest returned from Babylon with the books of Moses and the prophets." Ezra 6:18; Neh 9:14, 26-30 From God to Us, Moody Press, 1974, Norman Geisler and William Nix, p. 83 Geisler and Nix write that it was Ezra's own "priestly account of the history of Judah and the temple" connecting Chronicles with Ezra-Nehemiah. From God to Us, Moody Press, 1974, Norman Geisler and William Nix, p. 83

"By the time of Nehemiah [400 B.C.] this prophetic succession had produced and collected the twenty-two books of the Hebrew canon." From God to Us, Moody Press, 1974, Norman Geisler and William Nix, p. 84

ISBE CANON OF THE PROPHETS

DIVINE AUTHORITY

JEWISH DENIALS OF DANIEL AS A PROPHET

Proverbs. Nelson's writes that "according to 1 Kings 4:32 Solomon spoke three thousand Proverbs, of which about 800 are included in Proverbs. It is likely that Solomon collected and edited proverbs other than his own. Eccl. 12:9 Solomon's Proverbs were written before 931 B.C. King Hezekiah collected an additional 29 Proverbs 230 years later." Nelson's Complete Book of Maps and Charts, 1996, p. 185

Ecclesiastes & Song of Solomon

Job. Nelson's say that "several factors argue for a patriarchal date" between "2000-1800 B.C." Nelson's Complete Book of Maps and Charts, 1996, p. 171

Historical Writings

Geisler and Nix

Philo

Josephus

Evidence for Prophets - Writings Still Open Canon in Jesus' Day. As we look at Malachi, the closing book of the Hebrew Old Testament, the theme from Malachi is to look forward to the coming of Messiah who was expected to be the greatest teacher in the Bible. Jews in Jesus' day were looking forward to additional revelation from Messiah. Jewish scholars understood that Messiah was to be "that" Prophet, Priest, and King foretold throughout Scripture. Syst Theol 1:92-93

New Testament Evidences for Old Testament Canon

Geisler and Nix researched the phrase "the law and the prophets" in both the Old and New Testaments. Their research has led them to write, "first, it is a phrase inclusive in all the books in the Hebrew canon." Geisler and Nix remind us that "eighteen of the twenty-two books of the Hebrew Old Testament" are cited authoritatively in the New Testament. From God to Us, Moody Press, 1974, Norman Geisler and William Nix, p. 79 The four Old Testament books not specifically cited in the New Testament are Judges, Chronicles, Esther and the Song of Solomon. Of these four books Geisler and Nix say, "although there are no clear citations of these four books there are clear allusions to them." From God to Us, Moody Press, 1974, Norman Geisler and William Nix, p. 79 "When Jesus said, ‘all the Law and the Prophets prophesied until John, Lk 16:16, 29, 31 He included every inspired writing prior to the New Testament times in that phrase." Geisler and Nix write that Jesus carried the same implication when He said, "On these two commandments depend the whole Law and the Prophets." Matt 22:40 "Jesus used the same phrase when stressing the comprehensive Messianic truths of the Old Testament: ‘beginning with Moses and all the prophets, He interpreted to them in all the Scriptures the things concerning Himself." Lk 24:27 Jesus alluded to the phrase in the Sermon on the Mount. Mt 5:17; cf. Rom 1:2 Luke, the author of Acts wrote that "the Law and the prophets" were read in the synagogue on the sabbath." Acts 13:15 Paul used the same phrase attempting to convince certain Jews of his orthodoxy. Acts 24:14; cf. 26:22 From God to Us, Moody Press, 1974, Norman Geisler and William Nix, p. 79

Evidence for Fifth Century A.D. Canon Closure for Prophets - Writings. Geisler and Nix write, "by the fifth century A.D. the Jewish Talmud [Baba Bathra] listed eleven books in the third section called the Writings [Kethubhim]." From God to Us, Moody Press, 1974, Norman Geisler and William Nix, p. 77

For example "The Manual of Discipline" writes that "the Law of Moses is inviolate and a man shall be excommunicated if he transgresses a single word of the Law of Moses." Manual of Discipline 8:22; cited Wycliffe Bible Encyclopedia, Moody Press, vol. 1, p. 300

The "Damascus Document" also includes references to a high view of the Mosaic Law, but "does the same for the prophets: Isaiah, Ezekiel, Hosea, Amos, Micah, Nahum, Zechariah, and Malachi. Even the book of Proverbs is specially quoted as Scripture. Many other biblical books are alluded to. Wycliffe Bible Encyclopedia, Moody Press, vol. 1, p. 300

The book of the "War of the Sons of Light and the Sons of Darkness" quotes Deuteronomy, Numbers, and Isaiah as the word of God. Wycliffe Bible Encyclopedia, Moody Press, vol. 1, p. 300

Wycliffe Bible Encyclopedia concludes by writing, "to summarize, the extant Dead Sea sectarian writings quote or refer to as Scripture the five books of Moses and Joshua, 1 and 2 Samuel, Psalms, Proverbs, Isaiah, Ezekiel, Daniel, Hosea, Amos, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zechariah, and Malachi. This is a total of 20 books out of the present 39. It is to be noted that books of all sections of the Old Testament are treated as equally inspired. The evidence for canonical acceptance may not be positive for all, but it is positive for most of the books, and satisfactory for all but three." Wycliffe Bible Encyclopedia, Moody Press, vol. 1, p. 300-301

Old Testament "Apocrypha"

Two important Jewish writers rejected the apocrypha: Philo. [20 B.C. - A.D. 40] the Alexandrian philosopher recognized a threefold division never quoting the Apocrypha as inspired Scripture; and Josephus [A.D. 40-100] the Jewish historian excluded the apocrypha from the Old Testament.

The Septuagint 250 B.C. Geisler and Nix write, "the Greek translation of the Hebrew Old Testament made at Alexandria ... contained the Apocrypha." From God to Us, Moody Press, 1974, Norman Geisler and William Nix, p. 94 In summing up the importance of the Septuagint in determining the value of the Apocrypha, Geisler and Nix write, "Palestine was the home of the Jewish canon, not Alexandria Egypt. The great Greek learning center in Egypt was no authority in determining which books belonged in the Jewish Old Testament. Alexandria was the place of translation, not of canonization. The fact that the Septuagint contains the Apocrypha only proves that the Alexandrian Jews translated the other Jewish religious literature from the inter-testament period along with the canonical books. Philo, the Alexandrian Jew, clearly rejected the canonicity of the Apocrypha at the time of Christ as does the official Judaism at other places and times. In fact, the extant copies of the Septuagint date from the fourth century and do not prove what books were in the Septuagint of earlier times." From God to Us, Moody Press, 1974, Norman Geisler and William Nix, p. 96

The Dead Sea Scrolls. Geisler and Nix write, "books of the Apocrypha were found among the scrolls of the Dead Sea community at Qumran. Some of these books were written in Hebrew, indicating their use among Palestinian Jews even before the time of Christ. From God to Us, Moody Press, 1974, Norman Geisler and William Nix, p. 95

The Wycliffe Bible Encyclopedia researchers found that the community at Qumran held an especially high view of the Law and the prophets. "First they witness to the existence and widespread use of the Old Testament books at an early date. Second, they show the attitude of Jews of those times toward the Scriptures." Wycliffe Bible Encyclopedia, Moody Press, vol. 1, p. 299-300

They write, "thus the Dead Sea Scrolls show that substantially the present Old Testament was held by the community as of divine authority and these books were subsumed under the names, ‘the law and the prophets,' or ‘Moses and the prophets." Wycliffe Bible Encyclopedia, Moody Press, vol. 1, p. 302 Wycliffe researchers found after studying the canon at Qumran that "there is evidence that the sect at Qumran was more open than orthodox Jews in its concept of canonical books. They made use of a number of Apocryphal and Pseudepigraphical works." Wycliffe Bible Encyclopedia, Moody Press, vol. 1, p. 437 "the Apocryphal and Pseudepigraphical works, rejected by the Jews from the canon, were known to us previously only in translations.

Qumran furnished ... Hebrew and Aramaic ... of some of these works." Wycliffe Bible Encyclopedia, Moody Press, vol. 1, p. 438 In summing up the importance of the Dead Sea Scrolls as evidence about the value of the Apocrypha Geisler and Nix write, "Many non-canonical books were discovered at Qumran, including commentaries and manuals. It was a library and as such it contained numerous books not believed by the community to be inspired. There is no evidence to demonstrate that they held the Apocrypha as inspired. We may assume that they did not regard the Apocrypha as canonical. The fact that the group was a sect which had broken off from official Judaism would mean that it was not expected to be orthodox in all its beliefs." From God to Us, Moody Press, 1974, Norman Geisler and William Nix, p. 98

New Testament Allusions to the Apocrypha

Geisler and Nix say that because some of the earliest Christian manuscripts were related to the Septuagint many of these manuscripts also included the Apocrypha. From God to Us, Moody Press, 1974, Norman Geisler and William Nix, p. 94 Geisler and Nix write, "some of the very early church Fathers, particularly in the West, accepted and used the Apocrypha in their teaching and preaching." From God to Us, Moody Press, 1974, Norman Geisler and William Nix, p. 94

In summing up this evidence from the New Testament, Geisler and Nix write, "Jesus and the New Testament writers quoted most often from the Septuagint but never once from any book of the Apocrypha. At best the presence of the Apocrypha in Christian Bibles of the fourth century shows only that these books were accepted to some degree by Christians at that time. It does not indicate that either the Jews or earlier Christians accepted these books as canonical." From God to Us, Moody Press, 1974, Norman Geisler and William Nix, p. 96-97 "The New Testament never cites an Apocryphal book as inspired. Allusions to these books lend no more authority to them than do the New Testament references to the pagan poets." From God to Us, Moody Press, 1974, Norman Geisler and William Nix, p. 96

Augustine 354-430 A.D.

Council of Trent 1546 A.D.

Old Testament Psuedepigrapha

Magical character of Psuedopigrapha

False Claims to Divine Authority

Dead Sea Scrolls

(kan'-un):
I. INTRODUCTORY
.. 1. The Christian Term "Canon"
.. 2. The Corresponding Hebrew Expression
.. 3. The "Hidden Books" of the Jews
.. 4. The Determining Principle in the Formation of the Canon
.. 5. The Tripartite Division of the Old Testament
.. 6. How Account for the Tripartite Division?
II. EXAMINATION OF THE WITNESSES
.. 1. The Old Testament's Witness to Itself
.. 2. The Samaritan Pentateuch
.. 3. The Septuagint Version
.. 4. Ecclesiasticus, or the Wisdom of Jesus ben Sirach
.. 5. The Prologue to Ecclesiasticus
.. 6. 1 and 2 Maccabees
.. 7. Philo
.. 8. The New Testament as a Witness
.. 2:4 Esdras
.. 10. Josephus
.. 11. The Councils of Jamnia
.. 12. The Talmud
.. 13. Jewish Doubts in the 2nd Century AD
.. 14. Summary and Conclusion
III. THE CANON IN THE CHRISTIAN
.. 1. In the Eastern or Oriental Church
.. 2. In the Western Church
LITERATURE

I. Introductory.-- The problem of how we came by 39 books known as Old Testament "Scripture" is a purely historical investigation. The question involved is, not who wrote the several books, but who made them into a collection, not their origin or contents, but their history; not God's part, but man's. Our present aim, accordingly, must be to trace the process by which the various writings became "Scripture."

1. The Christian Term "Canon": The word "canon" is of Christian origin, from the Greek word kanon, which in turn is probably borrowed from the Hebrew word, qaneh, meaning a reed or measuring rod, hence, norm or rule. Later it came to mean a rule of faith, and eventually a catalogue or list. In present usage it signifies a collection of religious writings Divinely inspired and hence, authoritative, normative, sacred and binding. The term occurs in ; but it is first employed of the books of Scripture in the technical sense of a standard collection or body of sacred writings, by the church Fathers of the 4th century; e.g. in the 59th canon of the Council of Laodicea (363 AD); in the Festal Epistle of Athanasius (365 AD); and by Amphilochius, archbishop of Iconium (395 AD).

2. The Corresponding Hebrew Expression: How the ancient Hebrews expressed the conception of canonicity is not known; but it is safe to say that the idea, as an idea, existed long before there was any special phrase invented to express it. In the New Testament the word "Scriptures" conveys unquestionably the notion of sacredness . From the 1st century AD and following, however, according to the Talm, the Jews employed the phrase "defile the hands." Writings which were suitable to be read in the synagogue were designated as books which "defile the hands." What this very peculiar oriental expression may have originally signified no one definitely knows. Probably gives a hint of the true interpretation. According to this passage the high priest on the great Day of Atonement washed not only when he put on the holy garments of his office, but also when he put them off.

Quite possibly, therefore, the expression "defile the hands" signified that the hands which had touched the sacred writings must first be washed before touching aught else. The idea expressed, accordingly, was one akin to that of taboo. That is to say, just as certain garments worn by worshippers in encircling the sacred Kaaba at Mecca are taboo to the Mohammedans of today, i.e. cannot be worn outside the mosque, but must be left at the door as the worshippers quit the sanctuary, so the Hebrew writings which were fit to be read in the synagogue rendered the hands of those who touched them taboo, defiling their hands, as they were wont to say, so that they must first be washed before engaging in any secular business. This seems to be the best explanation of this enigmatical phrase. Various other and somewhat fanciful explanations of it, however, have been given: for example, to prevent profane uses of worn-out synagogue rolls (Buhl); or to prevent placing consecrated grain alongside of the sacred rolls in the synagogues that it might become holy, as the grain would attract the mice and the mice would gnaw the rolls (Strack, Wildeboer and others); or to prevent the sacred, worn-out parchments from being used as coverings for animals (Graetz); or to "declare the hands to be unclean unless previously washed" (Furst, Green). But no one of these explanations satisfies. The idea of taboo is more likely imbedded in the phrase.

3. The "Hidden Books" of the Jews: The rabbins invented a special phrase to designate rolls that were worn-out or disputed. These they called genuzim, meaning "hidden away." Cemeteries filled with Hebrew manuscripts which have long been buried are frequently found today in Egypt in connection with Jewish synagogues. Such rolls might first be placed in the genizah or rubbish chamber of the sanctuary. They were not, however, apocryphal or uncanonical in the sense of being extraneous or outside the regular collection. For such the Jews had a special term cepharim chitsonim, "books that are outside." These could not be read in the synagogues. "Hidden books" were rather worn-out parchments, or canonical rolls which might by some be temporarily disputed. See APOCRYPHA.

4. The Determining Principle in the Formation of the Canon: Who had the right to declare a writing canonical? To this question widely divergent answers have been given. According to a certain class of theologians the several books of the Old Testament were composed by authors who were conscious not only of their inspiration but also that their writings were destined to be handed down to the church of future generations as sacred. In other words each writer canonized, as it were, his own writings. For example, Dr. W. H. Green (Canon, 35 f, 106, 110) says: "No formal declaration of their canonicity was needed to give them sanction. They were from the first not only eagerly read by the devout but believed to be Divinely obligatory .... Each individual book of an acknowledged prophet of Yahweh, or of anyone accredited as inspired by Him to make known His will, was accepted as the word of God immediately upon its appearance. .... Those books and those only were accepted as the Divine standards of their faith and regulative of their conduct which were written for this definite purpose by those whom they believed to be inspired of God. It was this which made them canonical. The spiritual profit found in them corresponded with and confirmed the belief in their heavenly origin. And the public official action which further attested, though it did not initiate, their canonicity, followed in the wake of the popular recognition of their Divine authority. .... The writings of the prophets, delivered to the people as a declaration of the Divine will, possessed canonical authority from the moment of their appearance. .... The canon does not derive its authority from the church, whether Jewish or Christian; the office of the church is merely that of a custodian and a witness." So likewise Dr. J. D. Davis (Pres. and Ref. Review, April, 1902, 182).

On the contrary, Dillmann (Jahrb. fur deutsche Theol., III, 420) more scientifically claims that "history knows nothing of the individual books having been designed to be sacred from their origin. .... These books bore indeed in themselves from the first those characteristics on account of which they were subsequently admitted into the sacred collection, but yet always had first to pass through a shorter or longer period of verification, and make trial of the Divine power resident within them upon the hearts of the church before they were outwardly and formally acknowledged by it as Divine books." As a matter of fact, the books of the Old Testament are still on trial, and ever will be. So far as is known, the great majority of the writers of Holy Scripture did not arbitrarily hand over their productions to the church and expect them to be regarded as canon Scripture. Two parties are involved in the making of canonical Scripture-- the original authors and the church-- both of whom were inspired by the same Spirit. The authors wrote inspired by the Divine Spirit, and the church ever since-- Jewish and Christian alike-- has been inspired to recognize the authoritative character of their writings. And so it will be to the end of time. "We cannot be certain that anything comes from God unless it bring us personally something evidently Divine" (Briggs, The Study of Holy Scripture, 162).

5. The Tripartite Division of the Old Testament: The Jews early divided the Old Testament writings into three classes: (1) the Torah, or Law; (2) the Nebhi'im, or Prophets; and (3) the Kethubhim, or Writings, called in Greek the Hagiographa. The Torah included the 5 books of the Pentateuch (Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy), which were called "the Five-fifths of the Law." The Nebhi'im embraced (a) the four so-called Former Prophets, Joshua, Judges, 1 and 2 Samuel, counted as one book, 1 and 2 Kings, also counted as one book; and (b) the four so-called Latter Prophets, Isaiah, Jeremiay, Ezekiel, and the Twelve Minor Prophets, counted as one book; a total of 8 books. The Kethubhim, or Writings, were 11 in all, including Psalms, Proverbs, and Job, the five Meghilloth or Rolls (Canticles, Ruth, Lamentations, Ecclesiastes, Esther), Daniel, Ezra-Nehemiah, counted as one book, and 1 and 2 Chronicles, also counted as one book; in all 24 books, exactly the same as those of the Protestant canon. This was the original count of the Jews as far as we can trace it back. Later certain Jewish authorities appended Ruth to Judges, and Lamentations to Jer, and thereby obtained the number 22, which corresponded to the number of letters in the Hebrew alphabet; but this manner of counting was secondary and fanciful. Still later others divided Samuel, Kings, Chronicles, Ezra-Nehemiah and Jeremiah-Lamentations into two books each respectively and thereby obtained 27, which they fancifully regarded as equivalent to the 22 letters of the Hebrew alphabet plus 5, the number of letters having a peculiar final form when standing at the end of a word. Jerome states that 22 is the correct reckoning, but he adds, "Some count both Ruth and Lamentations among the Hagiographa, and so get 24." 4 Esdras, which is the oldest (85-96 AD) witness to the number of books in the Old Testament, gives 24.

6. How Account for the Tripartite Division?: The answer to the question of how to account for the tripartite division involves the most careful investigation of the whole process by which the canon actually took shape. If the entire canon of the Old Testament were formed, as some allege, by one man, or by one set of men, in a single age, then it is obvious that the books must have been separated into three groups on the basis of some material differences in their contents. If, on the other hand; the process of canonization was gradual and extended over several generations, then the various books were separated from one another probably because one section of the canon was closed before certain other books of similar character were written. At any rate it is difficult to see why Kings and Chronicles are not included in the same division, and especially strange that Daniel does not stand among the prophets.

To explain this mystery, mediaeval Jews were wont to say that "the Prophets were inspired by the spirit of prophecy, whereas the Writings by the Holy Spirit," implying different degrees of inspiration. But this is a distinction without a difference, the Holy Spirit and the spirit of prophecy are one and the same. Modern Protestants distinguish between the donum propheticum and the munus propheticum, i.e. between the gift and the office of prophecy. They allow that Daniel possessed the gift of prophecy, but they deny that he was Divinely appointed to the office of prophet. But compare , which speaks of "Daniel the prophet," and on the other hand, , in which Amos resents being considered a prophet. Oehler modifies this explanation, claiming that the threefold division of the canon corresponds to the three stages of development in the religion of Israel, namely, Mosaism, Prophetism, and Hebraism. According to Oehler, the Law was the foundation of the entire canon. From it there were two lines of development, one objective, the Prophets, the other subjective, the Writings. But Oehler's theory does not satisfactorily account for Ezra and Nehemiah and Chronicles, being in the third division; for in what sense can they be said to be more subjective than Judges, Samuel, and Kings? The Septuagint version (250-150 BC) takes no notice of the tripartite division. The true solution probably is that the process was gradual. When all the witnesses have been examined, we shall probably discover that the Law was canonized first, the Prophets considerably later, and the Writings last of all. And it may further become evident that the two last divisions were collected synchronously, and hence, that the tripartite divisions of the canon are due to material differences in their contents as well as to chronology.

ISBE CANON OF THE OLD TESTAMENT ~ I

II. Examination of the Witnesses.-- Though the Old Testament does not tell us anything about the processes of its own canonization, it does furnish valuable hints as to how the ancient Hebrews preserved their writings.

1. The Old Testament's Witness to Itself (circa 1450-444 BC): Thus in it is stated that the "testimony," by which is meant the two tables of the Law containing the Ten Commandments, was put into the Ark of the Covenant for safe-keeping. In , the laws of Deuteronomy are said to have been delivered to the sons of Levi, and by them deposited "by the side of the ark .... that it may be there for a witness against thee." Such language indicates that the new lawbook is regarded "as a standard of faith and action" (Driver, Dt, 343). According to <1 Kin 8:9>, when Solomon brought the Ark up from the city of David to the Temple, the two tables were still its only contents, which continued to be carefully preserved. According to <2 Kin 11:12>, when Joash was crowned king, Jehoiada the high priest is said to have given (literally "put upon") him "the testimony," which doubtless contained "the substance of the fundamental laws of the covenant," and was regarded as "the fundamental charter of the constitution" (compare H. E. Ryle, Canon of the Old Testament 45). Likewise in , it is stated that a large number of proverbs were copied out by Hezekiah's men. Now all these, and still other passages which might be summoned, witness to the preservation of certain portions of the Old Testament. But preservation is not synonymous with canonization. A writing might easily be preserved without being made a standard of faith and conduct. Nevertheless the two ideas are closely related; for, when religious writings are sedulously preserved it is but natural to infer that their intrinsic value was regarded as correspondingly precious.

Two other passages of paramount importance remain to be considered. The first is <2 Kin 22:8> ff, describing the finding of the "Book of the Law," and how Josiah the king on the basis of it instituted a religious reformation and bound the people to obey its precepts. Here is an instance in which the Law, or some portion of it (how much no one can say), is regarded as of normative and authoritative character. The king and his coadjutators recognize at once that it is ancient and that it contains the words of Yahweh <2 Kin 22:13,18-19>. Its authority is undisputed. Yet nothing is said of its "canonicity," or that it would "defile the hands"; consequently there is no real ground for speaking of it as "the beginnings of the canon," for in the same historic sense the beginnings of the canon are to be found in . The other passage of paramount importance is f, according to which Ezra is said to have "read in the book, in the law of God, distinctly." Not only did Ezra read the Law; he accompanied it with an interpretation. This seems to imply, almost beyond question, that in Ezra's time (444 BC) the Law, i.e. the Pentateuch, was regarded as canonical Scripture. This is practically all that the Old Testament says about itself, though other passages, such as and might be brought forward to show the deep regard which the later prophets had for the writings of their predecessors. The former of these is the locus classicus in the Old Testament, teaching the inspiration of the Prophets; it is the Old Testament parallel to <2 Tim 3:16>.

2. The Samaritan Pentateuch (circa 432 BC): Chronologically the Old Testament is of course our most ancient witness. It brings us down to 444 BC. The next in order is the Samaritan Pentateuch, the history of which is as follows: About 432 BC, as we know from and Josephus (Ant, XI, vii, 2--viii, 4), Nehemiah expelled from the Jewish colony in Jerusalem Manasseh, the polygamous grandson of Eliashib the high priest and son-in-law of Sanballat. Manasseh founded the schismatic community of the Samaritans, and instituted on Mt. Gerizim a rival temple worship to that at Jerusalem. Of the Samaritans there still survive today some 170 souls; they reside in Shechem and are known as "the smallest religious sect in the world." It is true that Josephus, speaking of this event, confuses chronology somewhat, making Nehemiah and Alexander the Great contemporaries, whereas a century separated them, but the time element is of little moment. The bearing of the whole matter upon the history of the formation of the canon is this: the Samaritans possess the Pentateuch only; hence, it is inferred that at the time of Manasseh's expulsion the Jewish canon included the Pentateuch and the Pentateuch only. Budde (Encyclopaedia Biblica col. 659) says: "If alongside of the Law there had been other sacred writings, it would be inexplicable why these last also did not pass into currency with the Samaritans." Such a conclusion, however, is not fully warranted. It is an argument from silence. There are patent reasons on the other hand why the Samaritans should have rejected the Prophets, even though they were already canonized. For the Samaritans would hardly adopt into their canon books that glorified the temple at Jerusalem. It cannot, accordingly, be inferred with certainty from the fact that the Samaritans accept the Pentateuch only, that therefore the Pentateuch at the time of Manasseh's expulsion was alone canonical, though it may be considered a reasonable presumption.

3. The Septuagint Version (circa 250-150 BC): The Septuagint version in Greek is the first translation of the Old Testament ever made; indeed the Old Testament is the first book of any note in all literature to receive the honor of being translated into another tongue. This fact in itself is indicative of the esteem in which it was held at the time. The work of translation was inaugurated by Ptolemy Philadelphus (285-247 BC) and probably continued for well-nigh a century (circa 250-150 BC). Aristeas, a distinguished officer of Ptolemy, records how it came about. It appears that Ptolemy was exceedingly fond of books, and set his heart on adding to his famous collection in Alexandria a translation of the Hebrew Pentateuch In order to obtain it, so the story goes, the king set free 198,000 Jewish slaves, and sent them with presents to Jerusalem to ask Eleazar the high priest for their Law and Jewish scholars capable of translating it.

Six learned rabbis from each tribe (6 X 12 = 72) were sent. They were royally feasted; 70 questions were asked them to test their wisdom, and after 72 days of cooperation and conference they gave the world the Old Testament in the Greek language, which is known as the Septuagint version. To this fabulous story, Christian tradition adds that the rabbis did the work of translating in 72 (some say 36) separate cells on the island of Pharos, all working independently of each other, and that it was found at the expiration of their seclusion that each had produced a translation exactly word for word alike, hence, supernaturally inspired. Justin Martyr of the 2nd century AD says that he was actually shown by his Alexandrian guide the ruins of these Septuagint cells. The story is obviously a fable. The kernel of real truth at the bottom of it is probably that Ptolemy Philadelphus about the middle of the 3rd century BC succeeded in obtaining a translation of the Law. The other books were translated subsequently, perhaps for private use. The lack of unity of plan in the books outside the Law indicates that probably many different hands at different times were engaged upon them. There is a subscription, moreover, at the close of the translation of Esth which states that Lysimachus, the son of Ptolemy in Jerusalem, translated it. But the whole was apparently completed before Jesus ben Sirach the younger wrote his Prologue to Ecclesiasticus (circa 132 BC).

Now the Septuagint version, which was the Bible of Our Lord and His apostles, is supposed to have included originally many of the Apocryphal books. Furthermore, in our present Septuagint, the canonical and Apocryphal books stand intermingled and in an order which shows that the translators knew nothing of the tripartite division of later Judaism, or if they did they quite ignored it. The order of the books in our English Old Testament is of course derived from the Septuagint through the Vulgate (Jerome's Latin Bible, 390-405 A.D.) of Jerome. The books in the Septuagint are arranged as follows: Pentateuch, Joshua, Judges, Ruth, 1 and 2 Samuel, 1 and 2 Kings, 1 and 2 Chronicles, 1 and 2 Esdras, Nehemiah, Tobit, Judith, Esther, Job, Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Wisdom, Ecclesiasticus, Hosea, Amos, Micah, Joel, Obadiah, Jonah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zepheniah, Hagai, Zechariah, Malachi, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Baruch, Lamentations, Ep. Jer., Ezekiel, Daniel, 1, 2 and 3 Maccabees. On the basis of the Septuagint, Catholics advocate what is known as the "larger" canon of the Jews in Alexandria; Protestants, on the other hand, deny the existence of an independent canon in Alexandria in view of the "smaller" canon of the Jews in Palestine The actual difference between the Catholic and Protestant Old Testaments is a matter of 7 complete books and portions of two others: namely, Tobit, Judith, Wisdom, Ecclesiasticus, Baruch, 1 and 2 Maccabees, together with certain additions to Esther and to Daniel (; Three; Sus verse 13 and Bel verse 14). These Protestants reject as apocryphal because there is no sufficient evidence that they were ever reckoned as canonical by the Jews anywhere. The fact that the present Septuagint includes them is far from conclusive that the original Septuagint did, for the following reasons:

(1) The design of the Septuagint was purely literary; Ptolemy and the Alexandrians were interested in building up a library. (2) All the extant manuscripts of the Septuagint are of Christian not Jewish origin. Between the actual translation of the Septuagint (circa 250-150 BC) and the oldest manuscripts of the Septuagint extant (circa 350 AD) there is a chasm of fully 500 years, during which it is highly possible that the so-called Apocryphal books crept in. (3) In the various extant manuscripts of the Septuagint, the Apocryphal books vary in number and name. For example, the great Vatican MS, which is probably "the truest representative which remains of the Alexandrian Bible," and which comes down to us from the 4th century AD, contains no Book of Maccabees whatever, but does include 1 Esdras, which Jerome and Catholics generally treat as apocryphal. On the other hand, the Alexandrian MS, another of the great manuscripts of the Septuagint, dating from the 5th century AD, contains not only the extra-canonical book of 1 Esdras, but 3 and 4 Maccabees, and in the New Testament the 1st and 2nd Epistles of Clement, none of which, however, is considered canonical by Rome. Likewise the great Sinaiticus MS, hardly less important than the Vatican as a witness to the Septuagint and like it dating from the 4th century AD, omits Baruch (which Catholics consider canonical), but includes 4 Macc, and in the New Testament the Epistle of Barnabas and the Shepherd of Hermas; all of which are excluded from the canon by Catholics. In other MSS, 3 Maccabees, 3 Esdras and Pr Man are occasionally included. The problem as to how many books the original Septuagint version actually included is a very complicated one. The probability is that it included no one of these variants.

(4) Still another reason for thinking that there never existed in Egypt a separate or "larger" canon is the fact that during the 2nd century AD, the Alexandrian Jews adopted Aquila's Greek version of the Old Testament in lieu of their own, and it is known that Aquila's text excluded all Apocryphal books. Add to all this the fact that Philo, who lived in Alexandria from circa 20 BC till 50 AD, never quotes from One of these Apocryphal books though he often does from the canonical, and that Origen, who also resided in Alexandria (circa 200 AD), never set his imprimatur upon them, and it becomes reasonably convincing that there was no "larger" canon in Alexandria. The value of the evidence derived from the Septuagint, accordingly, is largely negative. It only indicates that when the translation of the Old Testament into Greek was made in Alexandria, the process of canonization was still incomplete. For had it been actually complete, it is reasonable to suppose that the work of translation would have proceeded according to some well-defined plan, and would have been executed with greater accuracy. As it is, the translators seem to have taken all sorts of liberties with the text, adding to the books of Esth and Dan and omitting fully one-eighth of the text of Jer. Such work also indicates that they were not executing a public or ecclesiastical trust, but rather a private enterprise. Our necessary conclusion, therefore, is that the work of canonization was probably going on in Palestine while the work of translation was proceeding in Alexandria.

4. Ecclesiasticus, or the Wisdom of Jesus ben Sirach (circa 170 BC): Our next witness is Jesus ben Sirach who (circa 170 BC) wrote a formidable work entitled Ecclesiasticus, otherwise known as Sir. The author lived in Jerusalem and wrote in Hebrew. His book is a book of Wisdom resembling Proverbs; some of his precepts approach the high level of the Gospel. In many respects Ecclesiasticus is the most important of all the Apocryphal books; theologically it is the chief monument of primitive Sadduceeism. In chapters 44--50, the author sings a "hymn to the Fathers," eulogizing the mighty heroes of Israel from Enoch to Nehemiah, in fact from Adam to Simon, including the most famous men described in the Old Testament, and making explicit mention of the Twelve Prophets. These facts would indicate that the whole or, at least, the most of the Old Testament was known to him, and that already in his day (180 BC) the so-called Minor Prophets were regarded as a special group of writings by themselves.

What the value of Ecclesiasticus is as a witness, however, depends upon the interpretation one places on 24:33, which reads: "I will yet pour out doctrine as prophecy and leave it unto generations of ages." From this it is inferred by some that he feels himself inspired and capable of adding to the canon already in existence, and that, though he knew the full prophetic canon, he did not draw any very definite line of demarkation between his own work and the inspired writings of the prophets. For example, he passes over from the patriarchs and prophets of Israel to Simon the son of Onias, who was probably the high priest in his own time, making no distinction between them. But this may have been partly due to personal conceit; compare 39:12, "Yet more will I utter, which I have thought upon; and I am filled as the moon at the full." Yet, perhaps, in his day still only the Law and the Prophets were actually canonized, but alongside of these a body of literature was being gathered and gradually augmented of a nature not foreign to his own writings, and therefore not clearly marked off from literary compositions like his own. Yet to Sirach the Law is everything. He identifies it with the highest Wisdom; indeed, all wisdom in his judgment is derived from a study of the Law (compare 19:20-24; 15:1-18; 24:23; 2:16; 39:1).

5. The Prologue to Ecclesiasticus (circa 132 BC):

The Prologue or Preface to Ecclesiasticus is our next witness to the formation of the canon. It was written by the grandson of Jesus ben Sirach, who bore his grandfather's name (circa 132 BC). Jesus ben Sirach the younger translated in Egypt his grandfather's proverbs into Greek, and in doing so added a Preface or Prologue of his own. In this Prologue, he thrice refers to the tripartite division of the Old Testament. In fact the Prologue to Ecclesiasticus is the oldest witness we have to the threefold division of the Old Testament books. He says: "Whereas many and great things have been delivered unto us by the Law and the Prophets, and by others, .... my grandfather, Jesus, when he had given himself to the reading of the Law, and the Prophets, and other books of our Fathers, and had gotten therein good judgment (the Revised Version (British and American) "having gained great familiarity therein"), was drawn on also himself to write something pertaining to learning and wisdom. .... For the same things uttered in Hebrew and translated into another tongue, have not the same force in them; and not only these things, but the Law itself, and the Prophets, and the rest of the books, have no small difference, when they are spoken in their own language." These are explicit and definite allusions to the threefold division of the Old Testament writings, yet only the titles of the first and second divisions are the technical names usually employed; the third is especially vague because of his use of the terms, "the other books of the Fathers," and "the rest of the books." However, he evidently refers to writings with religious contents; and, by "the other books of the Fathers," he can hardly be supposed to have meant an indefinite number, though he has not told us which they were or what was their number. From his further statement that his grandfather, having immersed himself in the Law and the Prophets, and other books of the Fathers, felt drawn on also himself to write something for the profit of others, it may be inferred that in his time there was as yet no definite gulf fixed between canonical writings and those of other men, and that the sifting process was still going on (compare W. R. Smith, OTJC, 178-79).

6. 1 and 2 Macc (between 125 and 70 BC): 1 Maccabee was written originally in Hebrew; 2 Maccabee in Greek, somewhere between 125 and 70 BC. The author of 1 Maccabee is acquainted, on the one hand, with the deeds of John Hyrcanus (135 to 105 BC), and knows nothing on the other of the conquest of Palestine by Pompey (63 BC). The value of this book as a witness to the history of the canon centers about his allusions to Daniel and the Psalms. In 1 Macc 1:54, he tells how Antiochus Epiphanes "set up the abomination of desolation" upon the altar at Jerusalem, referring most likely to ; and in 1 Macc 2:59,60 he speaks of Ananias, Azarias and Misael, who by believing were saved from the fiery furnace, and of Daniel, who was delivered from the mouths of the lions (compare ). From these allusions, it would seem as though the Book of Daniel was at that time regarded as normative or canonical. This is confirmed by 1 Macc 7:16,17, which introduces a quotation from , with the solemn formula, "According to the words which he wrote"; which would suggest that the Ps also were already canonical.

2 Maccabee, written circa 124 BC, also contains a couple of passages of considerable importance to us in this investigation. Both, however, are found in a spurious letter purporting to have been sent by the inhabitants of Judaea to their fellow-countrymen residing in Egypt. The first passage (2 Macc 2:13) tells how Nehemiah, "founding a library, gathered together the acts of the kings, and the prophets, and of David, and the epistles of the kings concerning holy gifts." These words throw no special light upon the formation of the canon, but they do connect with the name of Nehemiah the preservation of public documents and historical records of national interest, and how he, as a lover of books, founded a library. This is in perfect agreement with what we know of Nehemiah's character, for he compiled the genealogy of ; besides, collection precedes selection. The other passage (2 Macc 2:14) reads: "In like manner also Judas gathered together all things that were lost by reason of the war we had, and they remain with us." Though found in a letter, supposed to be spurious, there is every reason for believing this statement to be true. For when Antiochus, the arch enemy of the nation, sought to stamp out the religion of the Jews by destroying their books (compare 1 Macc 1:56,57), what would have been more natural for a true patriot like Judas than to attempt to re-collect their sacred writings? "This statement, therefore," as Wildeboer says, "may well be worthy of credence" (The Origin of the Canon of the Old Testament, 40). Though it yields nothing definite as to the number of the books recovered, it is obvious that the books collected were the most precious documents which the nation possessed. They were doubtless religious, as was the age.

7. Philo (circa 20 BC-50 AD): Philo is our next witness. He flourished in Alexandria between circa 20 BC and 50 AD, leaving behind him a voluminous literature. Unfortunately, he does not yield us much of positive value for our present purpose. His evidence is largely negative. True, he nowhere mentions the tripartite division of the Old Testament, which is known to have existed in his day. Nor does he quote from Ezekiel, the Five Megilloth (Canticles, Ruth, Lamentations, Ecclesiastes, Esther), Daniel, Chronicles, or from the Twelve Minor Prophets, except Hosea, Jonah, and Zechariah. Moreover he held a loose view of inspiration. According to Philo, inspiration was by no means confined to the sacred Scriptures; all truly wise and virtuous men are inspired and capable of expressing the hidden things of God. But as Dr. Green (Canon, 130) rightfully contends, "Philo's loose views of inspiration cannot be declared irreconcilable with the acceptance of a fixed canon, unless it is first shown that he places others whom he thinks inspired on a level with the writers of Scripture. This he never does." Philo's reverence for the "Law" was unbounded. In this respect he is the type of other Alexandrians. He quotes predominatingly from the Law. Moses was to him the source of all wisdom, even the wisdom of the Gentiles. Concerning the laws of Moses, he is reported by Eusebius as saying: "They have not changed so much as a single word in them. They would rather die a thousand deaths than detract anything from these laws and statutes." On the other hand, Philo never quotes any of the Apocryphal books. Hence, it may safely be assumed that his canon was essentially ours.

8. The New Testament as a Witness (circa 50-100 AD): The evidence furnished by the New Testament is of the highest importance. When summed up, it gives the unmistakable impression that when the New Testament was written (circa 50-100 AD) there was a definite and fixed canon of Old Testament Scripture, to which authoritative appeal could be made. And first, too much importance can scarcely be attached to the names or titles ascribed to the Old Testament writings by the authors of the NT: thus, "the scripture" , "the scriptures" , "holy scriptures" , "sacred writings" <2 Tim 3:15>, "the law" , "law and prophets" . Such names or titles, though they do not define the limits of the canon, certainly assume the existence of a complete and sacred collection of Jewish writings which are already marked off from all other literature as separate and fixed. One passage in which the term "scripture," is employed seems to refer to the Old Testament canon as a whole; "and the scripture cannot be broken." In like manner the expression "law and prophets" is often used in a generic sense, referring to much more than merely the 1st and 2nd divisions of the Old Testament; it seems rather to refer to the old dispensation as a whole; but the term "the law" is the most general of all. It is frequently applied to the entire Old Testament, and apparently held in Christ's time among the Jews a place akin to that which the term "the Bible" does with us. For example, in , texts from the prophets or even from the Ps are quoted as part of "the Law"; in <1 Cor 14:21> also, Paul speaks of as a part of "the law." These names and titles, accordingly, are exceedingly important; they are never applied by New Testament writers to the Apocrypha.

One passage furnishes clear evidence of the threefold division of the canon. But here again, as in the Prologue of Sirach, there is great uncertainty as to the limits of the 3rd division. Instead of saying "the law, the prophets and the writings," Luke says, "the law, the prophets and the psalms." But it is obvious enough why the Psalms should have been adduced by Jesus in support of His resurrection. It is because they especially testify of Christ: they were, therefore, the most important part of the 3rd division for His immediate purpose, and it may be that they are meant to stand a potiori for the whole of the 3rd division (compare Budde, Encyclopaedia Biblica, col. 669).

Another passage (; compare ) seems to point to the final order and arrangement of the books in the Old Testament canon. It reads: "That upon you may come all the righteous blood shed on the earth, from the blood of Abel the righteous unto the blood of Zachariah son of Barachiah, whom ye slew between the sanctuary and the altar." Now, in order to grasp the bearing of this verse upon the matter in hand, it must be remembered that in the modern arrangement of the Old Testament books in Hebrew, Chronicles stands last; and that the murder of Zachariah is the last recorded instance in this arrangement, being found in <2 Chr 24:20-21>. But this murder took place under Joash king of Judah, in the 9th century BC. There is another which is chronologically later, namely, that of Uriah son of Shemaiah who was murdered in Jehoiakim's reign in the 7th century BC . Accordingly, the argument is this, unless Ch already stood last in Christ's Old Testament, why did He not say, "from the blood of Abel unto the blood of Uriah"? He would then have been speaking chronologically and would have included all the martyrs whose martyrdom is recorded in the Old Testament. But He rather says, "from the blood of Abel unto the blood of Zachariah," as though He were including the whole range of Old Testament Scripture, just as we would say "from Genesis to Malachi." Hence, it is inferred, with some degree of justification also, that Chronicles stood in Christ's time, as it does today in the Hebrew Bible of the Massorets, the last book of an already closed canon. Of course, in answer to this, there is the possible objection that in those early days the Scriptures were still written by the Jews on separate rolls.

Another ground for thinking that the Old Testament canon was closed before the New Testament was written is the numerous citations made in the New Testament from the Old Testament. Every book is quoted except Esther, Ecclesiastes, Canticles, Ezra, Nehemiah, Obadiah, Nahum, and Zephaniah. But these exceptions are not serious. The Twelve Minor Prophets were always treated by the Jews en bloc as one canonical work; hence, if one of the twelve were quoted all were recognized. And the fact that <2 Chr 24:20-21> is quoted in and presupposes also the canonicity of Ezra-Nehemiah, as originally these books were one with Ch, though they may possibly have already been divided in Jesus' day. As for Esther, Ecclesiastes, and Canticles, it is easy to see why they are not quoted: they probably failed to furnish New Testament writers material for quotation. The New Testament writers simply had no occasion to make citations from them.

What is much more noteworthy, they never quote from the Apocryphal books, though they show an acquaintance with them. Professor Gigot, one of the greatest of Roman Catholic authorities, frankly admits this. In his General Introduction to the Study of the Scriptures, 43, he says: "They never quote them explicitly, it is true, but time and again they borrow expressions and ideas from them." As a matter of fact, New Testament writers felt free to quote from any source; for example, Paul on Mars' Hill cites to the learned Athenians an astronomical work of the Stoic Aratus of Cilicia, or perhaps from a Hymn to Jupiter by Cleanthes of Lycia, when he says, "For we are also his off-spring" . And Jude verses 14,15 almost undeniably quotes from En (1:9; 60:8)-- a work which is not recognized as canonical by any except the church of Abyssinia. But in any case, the mere quoting of a book does not canonize it; nor, on the other hand, does failure to quote a book exclude it. Quotation does not necessarily imply sanction; no more than reference to contemporary literature is incompatible with strict views of the canon. Everything depends upon the manner in which the quotation is made. In no case is an Apocryphal book cited by New Testament authors as "Scripture," or as the work of the Holy Spirit. And the force of this statement is not weakened by the fact that the authors of New Testament writings cited the Septuagint instead of the original Hebrew; for, "they are responsible only for the inherent truthfulness of each passage in the form which they actually adopt" (Green, Canon, 145). As a witness, therefore, the New Testament is of paramount importance. For, though it nowhere tells us the exact number of books contained in the Old Testament canon, it gives abundant evidence of the existence already in the 1st century AD of a definite and fixed canon.

9. 4 Esd (circa 81-96 AD): 4 Esdras in Latin (2 Esdras in English) is a Jewish apocalypse which was written originally in Greek toward the close of the 1st century (circa 81-96 AD). The passage of special interest to us is 14:19-48 which relates in most fabulous style how Ezra is given spiritual illumination to reproduce the Law which had been burned, and how, at the Divine command, he secludes himself for a period of 40 days, after which he betakes himself with five skilled scribes to the open country. There, a cup of water is offered him; he drinks, and then dictates to his five amanuenses continuously for 40 days and nights, producing 94 books of which 70 are kept secret and 24 published. The section of supreme importance reads as follows: "And it came to pass, when the forty days were fulfilled, that the Most High spake, saying, `The first that thou hast written, publish openly, that the worthy may read it; but keep the seventy last, that thou mayest deliver them only to such as be wise among the people; for in them is the spring of understanding, the fountain of wisdom, and the stream of knowledge. ' And I did so" (4 Esd 14:45-48). The story is obviously pure fiction. No wonder that a new version of it arose in the 16th century, according to which the canon was completed, not by Ezra alone, but by a company of men known as the Great Synagogue. From the legend of 4 Esd it is commonly inferred that the 24 books which remain after subtracting 70 from 94 are the canonical books of the Old Testament. If so, then this legend is the first witness we have to the number of books contained in the Old Testament canon. This number corresponds exactly with the usual number of sacred books according to Jewish count, as we saw in section 5 above. The legend, accordingly, is not without value. Even as legend it witnesses to a tradition which existed as early as the 1st Christian century, to the effect that the Jews possessed 24 specially sacred books. It also points to Ezra as the chief factor in the making of Scripture and intimates that the Old Testament canon has long since been virtually closed.

10. Josephus' "Contra Apionem" (circa 100 AD): Flavius Josephus, the celebrated Jewish historian, was born 37 AD. He was a priest and a Pharisee. About 100 AD, he wrote a controversial treatise, known as Contra Apionem, in defense of the Jews against their assailants, of whom Apion is taken as a leading representative, Now Apion was a famous grammarian, who in his life had been hostile to the Jews. He had died some 50 years before Contra Apionem was written. Josephus wrote in Greek to Greeks. The important passage in his treatise (I, 8) reads as follows: "For it is not the case with us to have vast numbers of books disagreeing and conflicting with one another. We have but twenty-two, containing the history of all time, books that are justly believed in. And of these, five are the books of Moses, which comprise the laws and the earliest traditions from the creation of mankind down to the time of his (Moses') death. This period falls short but by a little of three thousand years. From the death of Moses to the reign of Artaxerxes, king of Persia, the successor of Xerxes, the prophets who succeeded Moses wrote the history of the events that occurred in their own time; in thirteen books. The remaining four documents comprise hymns to God and practical precepts to men. From the days of Artaxerxes to our own time every event has indeed been recorded. But these recent records have not been deemed worthy of equal credit with those which preceded them, because the exact succession of the prophets ceased. But what faith we have placed in our own writings is evident by our conduct; for though so great an interval of time (i.e. since they were written) has now passed, not a soul has ventured either to add, or to remove, or to alter a syllable. But it is instinctive in all Jews at once from their very birth to regard them as commands of God, and to abide by them, and, if need be, willingly to die for them."

The value of this remarkable passage for our study is obviously very great. In the first place Josephus fixes the number of Jewish writings which are recognized as sacred at 22, joining probably Ruth to Judg and Lam to Jer. He also classifies them according to a threefold division, which is quite peculiar to himself: 5 of Moses, 13 of the prophets, and 4 hymns and maxims for human life. The 5 of Moses were of course the Pentateuch; the 13 of the prophets probably included the 8 regular Nebhi'im plus Daniel, Job, Chronicles, Ezra-Nehemiah, and Esther; the "4 hymns and maxims" would most naturally consist of Psalms, Proverbs, Canticles and Ecclesiastes. There is little doubt that his 22 books are those of our present Hebrew canon.

Another very remarkable fact about Josephus' statement is the standard he gives of canonicity, namely, antiquity; because, as he says, since Artaxerxes' age the succession of prophets had ceased. It was the uniform tradition of Josephus' time that prophetic inspiration had ceased with Malachi (circa 445-432 BC). Hence, according to him, the canon was closed in the reign of Artaxerxes (465-425 BC). He does not pause to give any account of the closing of the canon; he simply assumes it, treating it as unnecessary. Prophecy had ceased, and the canon was accordingly closed; the fact did not require to be officially proclaimed. As remarked above. the value of Josephus as a witness is very great. But just here an important question arises: How literally must we interpret his language? Was the Old Testament canon actually closed before 425 BC? Were not there books and parts of books composed and added to the canon subsequent to his reign? Dr. Green seems to take Josephus literally (Canon, 40, 78). But Josephus is not always reliable in his chronology. For example, in his Antiquities (XI, vi, 13) he dates the story of Esther as occurring in the reign of Artaxerxes I (whereas it belongs to Xerxes' reign), while in the same work (XI, v, 1) he puts Ezra and Nehemiah under Xerxes (whereas they belong to the time of Artaxerxes). On the whole, it seems safer on internal grounds to regard Josephus' statements concerning the antiquity of the Jewish canon as the language not of a careful historian, but of a partisan in debate. Instead of expressing absolute fact in this case, he was reflecting the popular belief of his age. Reduced to its lowest terms, the element of real truth in what he says was simply this, that he voiced a tradition which was at that time universal and undisputed; one, however, which had required a long period, perhaps hundreds of years, to develop. Hence, we conclude that the complete Old Testament canon, numbering 22 books, was no new thing 100 AD.

11. The Councils of Jamnia (90 and 118 AD): According to the traditions preserved in the Mishna, two councils of Jewish rabbis were held (90 and 118 AD respectively) at Jabne, or Jamnia, not far South of Joppa, on the Mediterranean coast, at which the books of the Old Testament, notably Ecclesiastes and Canticles, were discussed and their canonicity ratified. Rabbi Gamaliel II probably presided. Rabbi Akiba was the chief spirit of the council. What was actually determined by these synods has not been preserved to us accurately, but by many authorities it is thought that the great controversy which had been going on for over a century between the rival Jewish schools of Hillel and Shammai was now brought to a close, and that the canon was formally restricted to our 39 books. Perhaps it is within reason to say that at Jamnia the limits of the Hebrew canon were officially and finally determined by Jewish authority. Not that official sanction created public opinion, however, but rather confirmed it.

12. The Talmud (200-500 AD): The Talmud consists of two parts: (1) The Mishna (compiled circa 200 AD), a collection of systematized tradition; and (2) the Gemara, Gemara (completed about 500 AD), a "vast and desultory commentary on the Mish." A Baraitha', or unauthorized gloss, known as the Babha' Bathra' 14 b, a Talmudic tractate, relates the "order" of the various books of the Old Testament and who "wrote" or edited them. But it says nothing of the formation of the canon. To write is not the same as to canonize; though to the later Jews the two ideas were closely akin. As a witness, therefore, this tractate is of little value, except that it confirms the tripartite division and is a good specimen of rabbinic speculation. For the full text of the passage, see Ryle, Canon of the Old Testament, 273 ff.

13. Jewish Doubts in the 2nd Cent. AD: During the 2nd century AD, doubts arose in Jewish minds concerning four books, Proverbs, Canticles, Ecclesiastes, and Esther. In a certain Talmudic tractate it is related that an attempt was made to withdraw (ganaz, "conceal," "hide") the Book of Prov on account of contradictions which were found in it (compare ), but on deeper investigation it was not withdrawn. In another section of the Talmud, Rabbi Akiba is represented as saying concerning Canticles: "God forbid that any man of Israel should deny that the Song of Songs defileth the hands, for the whole world is not equal to the day in which the Song of Songs was given to Israel. For all Scriptures are holy, but the Song of Songs is the holiest of the holy." Such extravagant language inclines one to feel that real doubt must have existed in the minds of some concerning the book. But the protestations were much stronger against Ecclesiates. In one tractate it is stated: "The wise men desired to hide it because its language was often self-contradictory (compare and <2:2; 4:2> and <9:4>), but they did not hide it because the beginning and the end of it consist of words from the Torah (compare <1:3; 12:13-14>)." Likewise Esth was vigorously disputed by both the Jerusalem and Babylonian Gemaras, because the name of God was not found in it; but a Rabbi Simeon ben Lakkish (circa 300 AD) defended its canonicity, putting Esther on an equality with the Law and above the Prophets and the other Writings. Other books, for example, Ezekiel and Jonah, were discussed in post-Talmudic writings, but no serious objections were ever raised by the Jews against either. Jonah was really never doubted till the 12th century AD. In the case of no one of these disputed books were there serious doubts; nor did scholastic controversies affect public opinion.

14. Summary and Conclusion: This brings us to the end of our examination of the witnesses. In our survey we have discovered (1) that the Old Testament says nothing about its canonization, but does emphasize the manner in which the Law was preserved and recognized as authoritative; (2) that to conclude that the Jews possessed the Law only, when the renegade Manasseh was expelled by Nehemiah from Jerusalem, because the Samaritans admit of the Law alone as the true canon, is unwarrantable; (3) that the Septuagint version as we know it from the Christian manuscripts extant is by no means a sufficient proof that the Alexandrians possessed a "larger" canon which included the Apocrpha; (4) that Jesus ben Sirach is a witness to the fact that the Prophets in his day (180 BC) were not yet acknowledged as canonical; (5) that his grandson in his Prologue is the first witness to the customary tripartite division of Old Testament writings, but does not speak of the 3rd division as though it were already closed; (6) that the Books of Maccabees seem to indicate that Psalms and Daniel are already included in the canon of the Jews; (7) that Philo's testimony is negative, in that he witnesses against the Apocryphal books as an integral part of Holy Scripture; (8) that the New Testament is the most explicit witness of the series, because of the names and titles it ascribes to the Old Testament books which it quotes; (9) that 4 Esdras is the first witness to the number of books in the Old Testament canon-- 24; (10) that Josephus also fixes the number of books, but in arguing for the antiquity of the canon speaks as an advocate, voicing popular tradition, rather than as a scientific historian; (11) that the Councils of Jamnia may, with some ground, be considered the official occasion on which the Jews pronounced upon the limits of their canon; but that (12) doubts existed in the 2nd century concerning certain books; which books, however, were not seriously questioned.

From all this we conclude, that the Law was canonized, or as we would better say, was recognized as authoritative, first, circa 444 BC; that the Prophets were set on an even footing with the Law considerably later, circa 200 BC; and that the Writings received authoritative sanction still later, circa 100 BC. There probably never were three separate canons, but there were three separate classes of writings, which between 450 and 100 BC doubtless stood on different bases, and only gradually became authoritative. There is, therefore, ground for thinking, as suggested above (section 6), that the tripartite division of the Old Testament canon is due to material differences in the contents as well as to chronology.

ISBE CANON OF THE OLD TESTAMENT ~ II

III. The Canon in the Christian Church.-- In making the transition from the Jewish to the Christian church, we find the same canon cherished by all.

1. In the Eastern or Oriental Church: Christians of all sects have always been disposed to accept without question the canon of the Jews. For centuries all branches of the Christian church were practically agreed on the limits set by the Jews, but eventually the western church became divided, some alleging that Christ sanctioned the "larger" canon of Alexandria, including the Apocrypha, while others adhered, as the Jews have always done, to the canon of the Jews in Palestine Taking the eastern or oriental church first, the evidence they furnish is as follows: The Peshitta, or Syriac version, dating from circa 150 AD, omits Ch; Justin Martyr (164 AD) held to a canon identical with that of the Jews; the Canon of Melito, bishop of Sardis, who (circa 170 AD) made a journey to Palestine in order carefully to investigate the matter, omits Est. His list, which is the first Christian list we have, has been preserved to us by Eusebius in his Eccl.

Hist., IV, 26; Origen (died 254 AD), who was educated in Alexandria, and was one of the most learned of the Greek Fathers, also set himself the task of knowing the "Hebrew verity" of the Old Testament text, and gives us a list (also preserved to us by Eusebius, Eccl. Hist., VI, 5) in which he reckons the number of books as 22 (thus agreeing with Josephus). Inadvertently he omits the Twelve Minor Prophets, but this is manifestly an oversight on the part of either a scribe or of Eusebius, as he states the number of books is 22 and then names but 21. The so-called Canon of Laodicea (circa 363 AD) included the canonical books only, rejecting the Apocrypha. Athanasius (died 365 AD) gives a list in which Esther is classed as among the non-canonical books, but he elsewhere admits that "Esther is considered canonical by the Hebrews." However, he included Baruch and the Epistle of Jeremiah with Jeremiah. Amphilochius, bishop of Iconium (circa 380 AD), speaks of Esther as received by some only. Cyril, bishop of Jerusalem (died 386 AD), gives a list corresponding with the Hebrew canon, except that he includes Baruch and the Epistle of Jeremiah. Gregory of Nazianzus in Cappadocia (died 390 AD) omits Esther. But Anastasius, patriarch of Antioch (560 AD), and Leontius of Byzantium (580 AD) both held to the strict Jewish canon of 22 books. The Nestorians generally doubted Esther. This was due doubtless to the influence of Theodore of Mopsuestia (circa 390-457 AD) who disputed the authority of Chronicles, Ezra, Nehemiah, Esther and Job. The oriental churches as a whole, however, never canonized the Apocrypha.

2. In the Western Church: Between 100 and 400 AD, the New Testament writings became canonical, occupying in the Christian church a place of authority and sacredness equal to those of the Old Testament. The tendency of the period was to receive everything which had been traditionally read in the churches. But the transference of this principle to the Old Testament writings produced great confusion. Usage and theory were often in conflict. A church Father might declare that the Apocryphal books were uninspired and yet quote them as "Scripture," and even introduce them with the accepted formula, "As the Holy Ghost saith." Theologically, they held to a strict canon, homiletically they used a larger one. But even usage was not uniform. 3 and 4 Esdras and the Book of Enoch are sometimes quoted as "Holy Writ," yet the western church never received these books as canonical. The criterion of usage, therefore, is too broad. The theory of the Fathers was gradually forgotten, and the prevalent use of the Septuagint and other versions led to the obliteration of the distinction between the undisputed books of the Hebrew canon and the most popular Apocryphal books; and being often publicly read in the churches they finally received a quasi-canonization.

Tertullian of Carthage (circa 150-230 AD) is the first of the Latin Fathers whose writings have been preserved. He gives the number of Old Testament books as 24, the same as in the Talmud Hilary, bishop of Poitiers in France (350-368 AD), gives a catalogue in which he speaks of "Jeremiah and his epistle," yet his list numbers only 22. Rufinus of Aquileia in Italy (died 410 AD) likewise gives a complete list of 22 books. Jerome also, the learned monk of Bethlehem (died 420 AD), gives the number of canonical books as 22, corresponding to the 22 letters of the Hebrew alphabet, and explains that the five double books (1 and 2 Samuel, 1 and 2 Kings, 1 and 2 Chroncles, Ezra-Nehemiah, Jeremiah-Lamentations) correspond to the five final letters of the Hebrew alphabet. In his famous Prologus Galeatus or "Helmed Preface" to the books of Samuel and Kings, he declares himself for the strict canon of the Jews; rejecting the authority of the deutero-canonical books in the most outspoken manner, even distinguishing carefully the apocryphal additions to Esther and to Daniel. As the celebrated Catholic writer, Dr. Gigot, very frankly allows, "Time and again this illustrious doctor (Jerome) of the Latin church rejects the authority of the deutero-canonical books in the most explicit manner" (General Intro, 56).

Contemporaneous with Jerome in Bethlehem lived Augustine in North Africa (353-430 AD). He was the bishop of Hippo; renowned as thinker, theologian and saint. In the three great Councils of Hippo (393) and Carthage (397 and 419 AD), of which he was the leading spirit, he closed, as it were, the great debate of the previous generations on the subject of how large shall be the Bible. In his essay on Christian Doctrine, he catalogues the books of Scripture, which had been transmitted by the Fathers for public reading in the church, giving their number as 44, with which he says "the authority of the Old Testament is ended." These probably correspond with the present canon of Catholics. But it is not to be supposed that Augustine made no distinction between the proto-canonical and deutero-canonical books. On the contrary, he limited the term "canonical" in its strict sense to the books which are inspired and received by the Jews, and denied that in the support of doctrine the books of Wisdom and Ecclesiasticus were of unquestioned authority, though long custom had entitled them to respect. And when a passage from 2 Maccabees was urged by his opponents in defense of suicide, he rejected their proof by showing that the book was not received into the Hebrew canon to which Christ was witness. At the third Council of Carthage (397 AD), however, a decree was ratified, most probably with his approval, which in effect placed all the canonical and deutero-canonical books on the same level, and in the course of time they actually became considered by some as of equal authority (see DEUTERO-CANONICAL BOOKS). A few years later, another council at Carthage (419 AD) took the additional step of voting that their own decision concerning the canon should be confirmed by Boniface, the bishop of Rome; accordingly, thereafter, the question of how large the Bible should be became a matter to be settled by authority rather than by criticism.

From the 4th to the 16th century AD the process of gradually widening the limits of the canon continued. Pope Gelasius (492-496 AD) issued a decretal or list in which he included the Old Testament apocrypha. Yet even after this official act of the papacy the sentiment in the western church was divided. Some followed the strict canon of Jerome, while others favored the larger canon of Augustine, without noting his cautions and the distinctions he made between inspired and uninspired writings. Cassiodorus (556 AD) and Isidore of Seville (636 AD) place the lists of Jerome and Augustine side by side without deciding between them. Two bishops of North Africa, Primasius and Junilius (circa 550 AD) reckon 24 books as strictly canonical and explicitly state that the others are not of the same grade. Popular usage, however, was indiscriminate. Outside the Jews there was no sound Hebrew tradition. Accordingly, at the Council of Florence (1442 AD), "Eugenius IV, with the approval of the Fathers of that assembly, declared all the books found in the Latin Bibles then in use to be inspired by the same Holy Spirit, without distinguishing them into two classes or categories" (compare Gigot, General Introduction, 71). Though this bull of Eugenius IV did not deal with the canonicity of the Apocryphal books, it did proclaim their inspiration. Nevertheless, down to the Council of Trent (1546 AD), the Apocryphal books possessed only inferior authority; and when men spoke of canonical Scripture in the strict sense, these were not included.

Luther, the great Saxon Reformer of the 16th century, marks an epoch in the history of the Christian Old Testament canon. In translating the Scriptures into German, he gave the deutero-canonical books an intermediate position between the Old Testament and the New Testament. The Lutheran church, also, while it does not expressly define the limits of the canon, yet places the Apocryphal writings by themselves as distinct and separate from Holy Scripture. This indeed was the attitude of all the early Reformers. In the Zurich Bible of 1529, as in the Genevan version in English of 1560, the Apocryphal books were placed apart with special headings by themselves. Thus the early Reformers did not entirely reject the Apocryphal writings, for it was not an easy task to do so in view of the usage and traditions of centuries.

Rome had vacillated long enough. She realized that something must be done. The Reformers had sided with those who stood by Jerome. She therefore resolved to settle the matter in an ecclesiastical and dogmatic manner. Accordingly the Council of Trent decreed at their fourth sitting (April 8, 1546), that the Apocryphal books were equal in authority and canonical value to the other books of sacred Scripture; and to make this decree effective they added: "If, however, anyone receive not as sacred and canonical the said books entire with all their facts, and as they have been used to be read in the Catholic church, and as they are contained in the Old Latin Vulgate (Jerome's Latin Bible, 390-405 A.D.) edition .... let him be anathema." The decree was the logical outcome of the ever-accumulating snowball tendency in the western church. The historical effect of it upon the church is obvious. It closed forever the field of Biblical study against all free research. Naturally, therefore, the Vatican Council of 1870 not only reiterated the decree but found it easy to take still another step and canonize tradition.

Repeated endeavors were made during the 16th and 17th centuries to have the Apocryphal books removed from the Scriptures. The Synod of Dort (1618-19), Gomarus, Deodatus and others, sought to accomplish it, but failed. The only success achieved was in getting them separated from the truly canonical writings and grouped by themselves, as in the Gallican Confession of 1559, the Anglican Confession of 1562, and the Second Helvetic Confession of 1566. The Puritan Confession went farther, and declared that they were of a purely secular character. The various continental and English versions of the Bible then being made likewise placed them by themselves, apart from the acknowledged books, as a kind of appendix. For example, the Zurich Bible of 1529, the French Bible of 1535, Coverdale's English translation of 1536, Matthew's of 1537, the second edition of the Great Bible, 1540, the Bishops' of 1568, and the King James Version of 1611. The first English version to omit them altogether was an edition of King James' Version published in 1629; but the custom of printing them by themselves, between the Old Testament and the New Testament, continued until 1825, when the Edinburgh Committee of the British and Foreign Bible Society protested that the Society should no longer translate these Apocryphal writings and send them to the heathen. The Society finally yielded and decided to exclude them (May 3, 1827). Since then, Protestants in Great Britain and America have given up the practice of publishing the Apocrypha as a part of sacred Scripture. In Europe, also, since 1850, the tendency has been in the same direction. The Church of England, however, and the American Episcopal church, do not wholly exclude them; certain "readings" being selected from Wisdom, Ecclesiastes and Baruch, and read on week days between October 27 and November 17. Yet, when the English Revised Version appeared in 1885, though it was a special product of the Church of England, there was not so much as a reference to the Apocryphal writings. The Irish church likewise removed them; and the the American Standard Revised Version ignores them altogether.

LITERATURE.-- G. Wildeboer, The Origin of the Canon of the Old Testament, translated by B. W. Bacon, London, Luzac and Co., 1895; H. E. Ryle, The Canon of the Old Testament, London and New York, Macmillan, 1892; F. Buhl, Canon and Text of the Old Testament, translated by John MacPherson, Edinburgh, T. and T. Clark, 1892; W. H. Green, General Intro to the Old Testament, The Canon, New York, Scribner, 1898; W. Robertson Smith, The Old Testament in the Jewish Church, 2nd edition, London, A. and C. Black, 1895; F. E. Gigot, General Intro to the Holy Scriptures, 3rd edition, New York, Cincinnati and Chicago, Benziger Bros., 1903; B. F. Westcott, The Bible in the Christian Church, London and New York, Macmillan, 1901; C. A. Briggs, General Intro to the Study of Holy Scripture, New York, Scribner, 1899; A. F. Kirkpatrick, The Divine Library of the Old Testament, London and New York, Macmillan, 1892; Hastings, Smith, Dictionary of the Bible, III, 1900, article "OT Canon" by F. H. Woods; Cheney and Black's Encyclopaedia Biblica, I, 1899, article "Canon" by K. Budde; The New Schaff-Herzog Enc of Religious Knowledge, II, 1908, article "Canon of Scripture" by H. L. Struck; Jour. of Biblical Lit., 1896, 118-28, article "The Alleged Triple Canon of the Old Testament," by W. J. Beecher; Abbe A. Loisy, Histoire du canon de l'ancien testament, Paris, 1890; J. Furst, Der Kanon des Altes Testament, Leipzig, 1868; E. Reuss, Histoire du canon des saintes ecritures dans l'eglise chretienne, Strassburg, 1864, English translation, Edinburgh, 1891.

George L. Robinson, International Standard Bible Encylopaedia

CANON: Scriptural "Authority" from Matthew to Revelation

Galatians 6:16
"Peace and mercy to all who follow this rule, even to the Israel of God."

Canon of the New Testament
Geisler and Nix write that the "history of the New Testament canon differs from that of the Old in several respects. In the first place, since Christianity was an international religion from the beginning." From God to Us, Moody Press, 1974, Norman Geisler and William Nix, p. 101 The birth of the church is seen in Acts chapter two being directed to "Jews living in Jerusalem, devout men from every nation" Acts 2:5

The first miracle of the church was the bursting forth of the Gospel in tongues that could be understood internationally. Acts 2:7-8 Of the earliest period of writing in the church Geisler and Nix write, "there was no tightly knit prophetic community which received all inspired books and collected them in one place." From God to Us, Moody Press, 1974, Norman Geisler and William Nix, p. 101

The Hebrew Old Testament canon was kept in Jerusalem nearest the holy temple but the books of the New Testament were written in Greek from international locations and sent out into the world. Geisler and Nix write of this period, "local and somewhat incomplete collections were made from the very beginning, but there is no evidence of a central and official clearing house for inspired writings." From God to Us, Moody Press, 1974, Norman Geisler and William Nix, p. 101

Geisler and Nix write that despite of the lack of central control over New Testament writings "once discussions resulted in the recognition of the twenty-seven canonical books of the New Testament canon , there have been no moves within Christendom to add to it or take away from it. The extent of the New Testament canon has met with general agreement within the church universal." From God to Us, Moody Press, 1974, Norman Geisler and William Nix, p. 101

Three Sources of Evidence for Canon
There are three primary sources for evidence. One important source "comes largely from the writings of the early church Fathers and also from many of the heretics of those days. Some evidence can be gleaned from the pages of the New Testament itself." As we begin our study we will be including evidence about the dates that scholars who have carefully researched these issues have assigned to each book. Wycliffe Bible Encyclopedia, Moody Press, 1975, vol. 1, p. 304

1. The early church was focused outwardly to the world and early evidence demonstrates that they translated the apostolic writings into foreign languages. Col 4:16

2. The early church was under attack both from within and without and needed internally to know which books should be read in the churches. 2 Thess 5:27 Geisler and Nix write, "since all Scripture was profitable for doctrine, 2 Tim 3:16-17 it became increasingly necessary to define the limits of the apostolic doctrinal deposit." From God to Us, Moody Press, 1974, Norman Geisler and William Nix, p. 102 Eusebius documented the persecution by the Roman Emperor Diocletian [A.D. 302-305] which included "an imperial edict of Diocletian in 303 A.D." which ordered "the destruction by fire of the Scriptures." From God to Us, Moody Press, 1974, Norman Geisler and William Nix, p. 102 "Within twenty-five years the Emperor Constantine had become a convert to Christianity and ordered Eusebius to prepare and distribute fifty copies of the Bible." The call for Bibles by Constantine made an official list of canonical books necessary. From God to Us, Moody Press, 1974, Norman Geisler and William Nix, p. 102-103

3. By 140 A.D. many apocryphal and heretical writings had surfaced claiming divine authority. 2 Thess 3:14 There was a need to have authoritative writings to use for cases of church discipline. From God to Us, Moody Press, 1974, Norman Geisler and William Nix, p. 102

Evidences for an Early Canon
Geisler and Nix write, "the New Testament was written during the last half of the first century. Most books were written to local churches [most of Paul's epistles]." From God to Us, Moody Press, 1974, Norman Geisler and William Nix, p. 103 Some were addressed to individuals. Philemon; 2, 3 John Some were addressed to broad geographic areas. First Peter was written to eastern Asia, Revelation was aimed at western Asia, Romans targeted Europe, and James wrote to Jerusalem.

Geisler and Nix write, "with such a geographical diversity of origin and destination it is understandable that not all the churches would immediately possess copies of all the inspired New Testament books." From God to Us, Moody Press, 1974, Norman Geisler and William Nix, p. 103

The early churches began immediately making collections of whatever apostolic literature they could verify. It was because not every book was authentic that Luke, the companion of Paul wrote the gospel account with his name. "Inasmuch as many have undertaken to compile an account of the things accomplished among us, 2. just as they were handed down to us by those who from the beginning were eyewitnesses and servants of the word, 3. it seemed fitting for me as well, having investigated everything carefully from the beginning, to write it out for you in consecutive order, most excellent Theophilus; 4. so that you may know the exact truth about the things you have been taught." Luke 1:1-4 Geisler and Nix write, "the implication in Luke's prologue is that in his day [A.D. 60] there were already some inaccurate accounts of Christ's life in circulation." From God to Us, Moody Press, 1974, Norman Geisler and William Nix, p. 103-104

Evidence Combating False Epistles
Paul warned the church in Thessalonika not to be "quickly shaken from your composure or be disturbed either by a spirit or a message or a letter as if from us" 2 Thess 2:2 John wrote that the multitude of Jesus' works could not be written down. Jn 21:25; 20:30 Geisler and Nix write "there arose many beliefs about the life of Christ which demanded apostolic verification." From God to Us, Moody Press, 1974, Norman Geisler and William Nix, p. 104 They continued, "the process of canonization was at work from the very beginning. The first churches were exhorted to select only the authentic apostolic writings." ibid., p. 107

Evidence Combating False Apostolic Influence
Paul warned the church at Corinth about "such men are false apostles, deceitful workers, disguising themselves as apostles of Christ." 2 Cor 11:13 cf. 2 Thess 2:9 Paul further warned that these false leaders would have "a deluding influence" 2 Thess 2:11 causing the church to "believe what is false." The apostle Peter agreed writing, "false prophets also arose among the people" 2 Pet 2:1 Peter called them "false teachers," who "secretly" introduced heresies. 2 Pet 2:1 Peter identified their motivation in assuming the office of a false apostle, as being "in their greed" they "exploit you with false words." 2 Pet 2:3 John sums things up writing, "Beloved, do not believe every spirit, but test the spirits to see whether they are from God, because many false prophets have gone out into the world." I John 4:1

New Testament is "Apostolic"
Canon of the Eyewitnesses. In the apostolic period "the original eyewitnesses of the life and resurrection of Christ were alive, Acts 1:21-22 everything could be subjected to the authority of the oral teaching and tradition of the apostles." 1 Thess 2:13; 1 Cor 11:2 From God to Us, Moody Press, 1974, Norman Geisler and William Nix, p. 104 "Within the first century church there was a selecting process at work. Every alleged word about Christ, whether oral or written, was subjected to authoritative apostolic teaching. If word or work could not be verified by those who were eyewitnesses, Lk 1:2; Acts 1:21-22 it was rejected. The apostles would say, ‘that which we have seen and heard we proclaim also to you,' 1 Jn 1:3 were the final court of appeal." From God to Us, Moody Press, 1974, Norman Geisler and William Nix, p. 104-105

Evidence for Apostolic Canon. Peter wrote, "For we did not follow cleverly devised tales when we made known to you the power and coming of our Lord Jesus Christ, but we were eyewitnesses of His majesty." 2 Pet 1:16 Geisler and Nix write, "this primary source of apostolic authority was the canon by which the first church selected the writings through which they devoted themselves to the apostle's teaching and fellowship. Acts 2:42 From God to Us, Moody Press, 1974, Norman Geisler and William Nix, p. 104-105

God Himself Instituted the Apostolic Canon
"How will we escape if we neglect so great a salvation? After it was at the first spoken through the Lord, it was confirmed to us by those who heard, 4. God also testifying with them, both by signs and wonders and by various miracles and by gifts of the Holy Spirit according to His own will." Heb 2:3-4 From God to Us, Moody Press, 1974, Norman Geisler and William Nix, p. 105 John was commanded by God to, "Write in a book what you see, and send it to the seven churches: to Ephesus and to Smyrna and to Pergamum and to Thyatira and to Sardis and to Philadelphia and to Laodicea." Rev 1:11

Paul cited Luke's Gospel as Scripture
1 Tim 5:18 cf. Lk 10:7 As Luke authored Acts he assumed that Theophilus already had a copy of an earlier account. Acts 1:1 "By the end of the first century all twenty-seven New Testament books were written and received by the churches. The canon was complete and all the books were recognized by believers somewhere." From God to Us, Moody Press, 1974, Norman Geisler and William Nix, p. 107 This authoritative apostolic canon of Scripture was vital because of the "multiplicity of false teachings," and the lack of immediate access to the thinning numbers of living apostles who were no longer being replaced as in the case the replacement of Judas Iscariot.

"Early" Dates for New Testament Books
Geisler and Nix write that "the New Testament was written during the last half of the first century." From God to Us, Moody Press, 1974, Norman Geisler and William Nix, p. 103 They continue, "the process of canonization was at work from the very beginning." ibid. p. 107 Dr. A.T. Robinson, professor at Trinity College at Cambridge was surprised to discover in research that the dates for the writing of the New Testament was extremely early. After 8 years of research he concluded that most of the New Testament was written between A.D. 50 and 75. Dr. Unger has written, "Although the synoptic gospels cannot be dated precisely, numerous scholars date Mark A.D. 65-75, Luke A.D. 85, Matthew A.D. 85 or 90; and John A.D. 90 or somewhat later. C. C. Torrey dates Mark A.D. 40, Matthew only slightly later, and Luke and John not beyond A.D. 60. The Date of the Acts and the Synoptic Gospels, that Luke is to be dated before A.D. 60 and Mark somewhat earlier." New Unger's Bible Dictionary, Moody Press Chicago W.M. Flinders Petrie argues that, "Some generally accepted Gospels must have been in circulation before 60 AD." International Standard Bible Encylopaedia Harnack says: "It seems now to be established beyond question that both books of this great historical order were written while Paul was still alive." There is an intermediate date about 80 AD, assigned by Adeney, Bartlett, Plummer, Sanday, Weiss, Wright, on the ground that the investigations mentioned in Lk 1:1-4 describe the use of narratives which could have been written only after a long period of reflection." International Standard Bible Encylopaedia

Dating Paul's Epistles
International Standard Bible Encylopaedia. "Ten of the thirteen Pauline epistles were written during a period of about ten years between Paul's arrival in Corinth and the close of his first Roman imprisonment. These epistles fall into three groups, each possessing certain distinctive characteristics; and although each reflects the difference in time and occasion of its production, they all reveal an essential continuity of thought and a similarity of style which evidences unity of authorship. The earliest group consists of the Thessalonian epistles, both of which were written from Corinth on the second missionary journey about 52 or 53 AD, while Silas (Silvanus) was still in Paul's company and shortly after Paul's visit to Athens. 1 Thes 1:1; 3:1-2,6; 2 Thes 1:1 The major epistles belong to the third missionary journey. 1 Corinthians was written from Ephesus about 55 AD; Galatians probably from Ephesus, either before or after 1 Corinthians, for Paul had been twice in Galatia, Gal 4:13 2 Corinthians from Macedonia about 57 AD; and Romans from Corinth about 57 or 58 AD. The imprisonment epistles were written from Rome: Colossians, Ephesians and Philemon about 62 AD, and Philippians about 63 AD." International Standard Bible Encylopaedia

Merrill C. Unger. "Paul's Epistles
Paul's epistles number fourteen (if we include Hebrews) and are arranged in the NT not in the order of time as to their composition but rather according to the rank of the places to which they were sent. It is not known by whom they were thus arranged. Paul's letters were, as a rule, written by an amanuensis under his dictation, after which he added a few words in his own hand at the close. The epistles to Timothy and Titus are called pastoral epistles, because they contain pastoral instructions from a pastor to a pastor. Ephesians, Philippians, Colossians, and Philemon are known as prison epistles because they were written during Paul's Roman imprisonment." New Unger's Bible Dictionary, Moody Press Chicago

Dating the General Epistles
Merrill C. Unger. The General Epistles are so called "because they were not addressed to any particular church or individual but to Christians in general. Of these, three were written by John, two by Peter, and one each by James and Jude. This division is strictly accurate, for 1 Peter and 2 and 3 John, although addressed to particular persons, have little in them that is properly local and personal." New Unger's Bible Dictionary, Moody Press Chicago

International Standard Bible Encylopaedia
Of the seven so-called Universal or General Epistles, James and Jude are by "brethren" of the Lord (James, "the Lord's brother," was head of the church at Jerusalem. Acts 15:13; 21:18; Gal 1:19 Peter and John, to whom the others were ascribed, were apostles. James and 1 Peter are addressed to the Jews of the Dispersion. 1 Pet 1:1; James 1:1 The doubts respecting certain of these writings have already been mentioned. The early date and acceptance of James is attested by numerous allusions. Clement of Rome, Barnabas, Hermas, Didache Many regard it as the earliest of the epistles -- before Paul's. 1 John, like 1 Peter, was undisputed (if the Fourth Gospel is genuine, 1 John is), and, on internal grounds, the shorter epistles (2 John, 3 John) need not be doubted. Jude, rugged in style, with allusions to Jewish Apocalypses, Jude 9,14 is well attested, and 2 Peter seems to found on it. The last-named epistle must rely for acceptance on its own claim, 2 Pet 1:1,18 and on internal evidence of sincerity. It is to be observed that, though late in being noticed, it never appears to have been treated as spurious. The style certainly differs from 1 Peter; this may be due to the use of an amanuensis. If accepted, it must be placed late in Peter's life (before 65 AD). 1 Peter and Jude, in that case, must be earlier." International Standard Bible Encylopaedia

Dating the Apocalypse of John
The Book of Revelation. "The one prophetic book of the New Testament-- the apocalyptic counterpart of Daniel in the Old Testament-- is the Book of Revelation. The external evidence for the Johannine authorship is strong. Tradition and internal evidence ascribe it to the reign of Domitian (circa 95 AD). Its contents were given in vision in the isle of Patmos." Rev 1:9 International Standard Bible Encylopaedia Dr. Merrill Unger writes that "John wrote by express command of Christ. Rev 1:10-20 Quite a few scholars date the book about A.D. 68 or 69 [Westcott, Lightfoot, Hort, and Salmon]. The reasons for this, however, are not convincing. The best date seems to be A.D. 95 or 96. cf. Swete, Milligan, Moffatt, and Zahn This date accords with evidence from Irenaeus, Clement of Alexandria, and Eusebius to the effect that the banishment to Patmos was in the later reign of Domitian, A.D. 81-96. This view is in agreement with the fact that the Domitian persecution, unlike the Neronic, was the result of the Christians' refusal to worship the emperor." Rev 1:9; 13:9-10, 12 New Unger's Bible Dictionary, Moody Press Chicago

Confirmations of the Official Collection of New Testament Books
Geisler and Nix say there were several ways the canonicity was evidenced.. The first they write is the existence of the writings of the earliest church fathers. "Immediately after the times of the apostles, in the writings of the earliest Fathers, there is a recognition of the inspiration of the twenty-seven books. Supporting their witness are the early translations, canonical lists, and pronouncements of church councils." From God to Us, Moody Press, 1974, Norman Geisler and William Nix, p. 107-108 Wycliffe scholars say "there is no great need to trace the subject through the giants of the later ages - Tertullian and Clement of Alexandria, and Cyprian of about A.D. 200; then Eusebius, the church historian, and Athanasius, the defender of orthodoxy, in A.D. 325." Wycliffe Bible Encyclopedia, Moody Press, 1975, vol. 1, p. 305

1. Clement of Rome was a contemporary of the apostle John
In A.D. 96 he wrote to the church at Corinth Early Christian Writings, p. 19-51 mentioning material found in the gospels of Matthew and Luke. He also mentioned the Book of Hebrews, Paul's letter to Rome and Corinth. ibid. p. 20-21 He is called a "fellow-worker" with Paul. Phil 4:3 Wycliffe scholars say he is referred to 1 Timothy, Titus, 1 Peter and Ephesians. Intl Std Bible Ency. 1:564 cf. Wycliffe Bible Encyclopedia, Moody Press, 1975, vol. 1, p. 307

2. Polycarp "was instructed by the apostles"
Wycliffe Bible Encyclopedia, Moody Press, 1975, vol. 1, p. 308 He was martyred for his faith in A.D. 155. In A.D. 110 [John's disciple] he wrote to the Philippians Early Christian Writings, p. 115-135 mentioning Paul's letter to them and nine other Pauline letters, Matthew, and 1 John, and 1 Peter. Intl Std Bible Ency. 1:564

3. Ignatius was a bishop in Antioch at the turn of the first century A.D.
He was martyred for the faith in either 107 or 116 A.D. under the reign of Trajan. He wrote seven letters Early Christian Writings, p. 55-75 that incorporated the language of nine of Paul's epistles, the gospel of Matthew, 1 Peter, 1 John and Luke . Intl Std Bible Ency. 1:564 cf. Wycliffe Bible Encyclopedia, Moody Press, 1975, vol. 1, p. 307-308

4. The "Didache," dates from between A.D. 80 to120
It was titled, "The Teachings of the Twelve Apostles." There are both direct quotes and illusions to Scripture throughout. The I.S.B.E. writes that, "Matthew was certainly in the writer's hands; for the Didache contains 22 quotations from, or reminiscences of, that Gospel, extending over ten chapters of it. Particularly notable is Didache, viii. 2, "Neither pray ye as the hypocrites, but as the Lord commanded in His Gospel; after this manner pray ye, Our Father," etc. (see also vii. 1; ix. 5; xvi. 6). There are also references to the Gospel of Luke (Didache, iii. 5, 16); John's writings (see above); Acts (Didache, iv. 8), Romans (Didache, iv. 5), 2 Thes (Didache, xiv. 1), 1 Pet (Didache, i. 4). No extra-canonical saying of Our Lord is recorded." Intl Std Bible Ency. 1:564 Although the Didache itself in an early time disappeared until its recovery in 1875 by Bryennios." International Standard Bible Encylopaedia

5. The "Apologists," Justin Martyr, Aristides, Melito of Sardis, and Theophilus of Antioch. Justin Martyr spoke of the gospels as being the "memoirs of the apostles." Intl Std Bible Ency. 1:564 Justin Martyr in A.D. 140 "was born about 100 AD at Shechem, and died as a martyr at Rome in 165 AD." International Standard Bible Encylopaedia Justin "is the earliest Christian author whose writings have been preserved in considerable extent." Wycliffe Bible Encyclopedia, Moody Press, 1975, vol. 1, p. 306 "He was a philosopher in his early days" and Wycliffe scholars say his writings all have evidence of this training. His writings "show a boldness and a Christian humility which are still impressive. Justin quotes all the Gospels and six of Paul's letters. He also quoted from John's Revelation. Justin preserved for us an ancient description of a Christian worship service as "consisting of reading of the Memoirs of the apostles," or the writings of the prophets, with a sermon, prayer, communion service, and collection." Wycliffe Bible Encyclopedia, Moody Press, 1975, vol. 1, p. 306 On Scripture Justin wrote, "I am entirely convinced that no Scripture contradicts another." Justin wisely added this thought upon handling a difficult passage, "I shall admit rather that I do not understand what is recorded" rather than present a contradiction. Wycliffe Bible Encyclopedia, Moody Press, 1975, vol. 1, p. 306

6. Tatian the Syrian in A.D. 170, the pupil of Justin Martyr in Rome wrote a sophisticated harmony called the Diatessaron of the four gospels. General Intro Bible, Ewart, p. 128 cf. International Standard Bible Encylopaedia "The fact that Tatian, his pupil, made a harmony of the Gospels, i.e. of our four Gospels, also bears upon our interpretation of Justin's "Memoirs." International Standard Bible Encylopaedia

7. Marcion "The most noted of the Gnostics was Marcion, a native of Pontus. He went to Rome (circa 140 AD), there broke with the church and became a dangerous heretic." International Standard Bible Encylopaedia ISBE scholars write, "Such use of the Scriptures inevitably called forth both criticism and a clearer marking off of those books which were to be used in the churches opposed to heresy, and so "in the struggle with Gnosticism the canon was made." International Standard Bible Encylopaedia An important impulse to the formation of a definite canon came from the gnostic Marcion (circa 140 AD), who made a canon for himself in 2 parts, "Gospel" and "Apostolicon," consisting of one gospel (a mutilated Lk) and 10 epistles of Paul (excluding Pastorals)." International Standard Bible Encylopaedia While Marcion denied the Pastoral Epistles of Paul, he was one of the earliest witnesses for Colossians and Galatians. "The first definite witness is Marcion, who included this epistle in his collection of those written by Paul." Tert., Adv. Marc., v. 19 International Standard Bible Encylopaedia Marcion himself wrote, "it is clear by A.D. 100 Paul's letters had been collected and were widely known and widely accepted." General Intro Bible, Ewart, p. 119

8. Irenaeus was Polycarp's pupil. Wycliffe Bible Encyclopedia, Moody Press, 1975, vol. 1, p. 307-308 He was born in Asia Minor in A.D. 130. He died a martyr for the faith under Severus in A.D. 202. In A.D. 185, as bishop of Lyons in Gaul, he wrote a book titled, "Against Heresies." In that book Irenaeus acknowledged all four gospels, Acts, all of Paul's writings but Philemon, 1 Peter, 1 and 2 John, and the book of Revelation of John. General Intro Bible, Ewart, p. 126 cf. Intl. Std. Bible Ency. 1:565 Irenaeus "quotes practically all the whole New Testament, referring to it as Scripture, apostolic, verbally inspired, and absolutely true. No other book written in the Christian era is quoted as Scripture. Indeed, the spurious Gospel of Thomas and the Gnostic Gospel of Truth are indignantly rejected as "agreeing with nothing with the Gospels of the apostles." Wycliffe Bible Encyclopedia, Moody Press, 1975, vol. 1, p. 305-306

Irenaeus attacked in A.D. 140 a heretic named Valentinus in his book "Against Heresies." However, before 1945 no copies of Valentinus had survived. "At Chenoboskion, a little north of Thebes, peasants in 1945 found a cache of Gnostic writings known as the Nag-Hammadi Gnostic texts. There were 13 books containing about 49 works. One of these books was the "Jung Codex," containing the "Gospel of Truth" written by the heretic Valentinus. Wycliffe Bible Encyclopedia, Moody Press, 1975, vol. 1, p. 307 Even the heretic Valentinus quotes or alludes to many New Testament books.

9. Clement of Alexandria was born about A.D. 150 to heathen parents in Athens initiated in the mystery religions. Ency Brit, vol. 5, p. 799 He became presbyter of the church in Alexandria. Important students that he taught were Origen and Alexander the bishop of Jerusalem. He is noted as one of the first to "bring all the culture of the Greeks and all the speculations of the Christian heretics to bear on the exposition of Christian truth." ibid. Both Eusebius and Jerome leave lists of Clement's extensive writing. ibid. By A.D. 200 Clement had quoted all four gospels as "Scripture." Intl. Std. Bible Ency. 1:565 ISBE scholars say, "The first theological school of Christendom was founded in Alexandria. It offered a three years' course. There were no fees, the lecturers being supported by gifts from rich students. Pantaenus, a converted Stoic philosopher, was its first head (180). He was followed by Clement (202) and by Origen (232) under whom the school reached its zenith. It always stood for the philosophical vindication of Christianity. Among its greatest writers were Julius Africanus (215), Dionysius (265), Gregory (270), Eusebius (315), Athanasius (373) and Didymus (347), but Origen (185-254) was its chief glory; to him belongs the honor of defeating paganism and Gnosticism with their own weapons; he gave to the church a "scientific consciousness," his threefold interpretation of Scripture affected Biblical exegesis clear down to the last century. Arius was a catechist in this institution, and Athanasius, the "father of orthodoxy" and "theological center of the Nicene age" (Schaff), though not officially connected with the catechetical school was greatly affected by it, having been bred and trained in Alexandria." International Standard Bible Encylopaedia

10. Hypolytus (170-235 A.D.), a pupil of Irenaeus, and the last important Greek writer as the emphasis moved closer and closer to Rome wrote mentioning every book but Hebrews. General Intro Bible, Ewart, p. 126

11. Tertullian, representing the African churches before 200 A.D. accepts all of the current canon but Hebrews which, while acknowledging it credits it to Barnabas. General Intro Bible, Ewart, p. 116 In A.D. 200, Tertullian noted that the heretic Valentinus quoted or alluded to all of the New Testament books. Wycliffe Bible Encyclopedia, Moody Press, 1975, vol. 1, p. 307

12. The "Muratorian Canon" Documents of the Christian Church, Oxford, p. 28-29 is a partially complete Greek fragment [composed about 170 A.D. Wycliffe] discovered in the Library of Milan in 1740 which includes a list of New Testament books in the context of a discussion of canon. Lightfoot assigns it to Hippolytus. Intl. Std. Bible Ency. 1:565 This list is evidence of an acceptance of all the gospels, Acts, and Paul's writings through Revelation. Missing was Hebrews, 1 and 2 Peter, and Jude. Intl. Std. Bible Ency. 1:565 Wycliffe scholars say this early document "rejects the Shepherd of Hermes as not from the apostles. It mentions the Apocalypse of Peter as received by some but not by others, and names some spurious epistles of Paul. It is a discerning witness both in what it accepts and what it rejects." Wycliffe Bible Encyclopedia, Moody Press, 1975, vol. 1, p. 306

13. Origen, [185-254 A.D.] "By far the most distinguished name of the 3rd century is Origen. He was born in Alexandria about 185 AD, and before he was seventeen became an instructor in the school for catechumens. In 203 he was appointed bishop, experienced various fortunes, and died in 254. His fame rests upon his ability as an exegete, though he worked laboriously and successfully in other fields. His testimony is of high value, not simply because of his own studies, but also because of his wide knowledge of what was thought in other Christian centers in the world of his time." Origen accepted "the Gospels, the Pauline epistles, the Acts, he accepts without question." International Standard Bible Encylopaedia Before A.D. 254, as a student of Clement of Alexandria Origen accepted Clement's list which he called "homologoumena" which meant were "confessed by all." General Intro Bible, Ewart, p. 126

14. Eusebius "In the early part of the 4th century Eusebius (270-340 AD), bishop of Caesarea before 315, sets before us in his Church History (III, chapters iii-xxv) his estimate of the canon in his time. He does not of course use the word canon, but he "conducts an historical inquiry into the belief and practice of earlier generations." International Standard Bible Encylopaedia Origen is best known for his history of Christianity which accepted all of our current books of the New Testament." General Intro Bible, Ewart, p. 127

15. Augustine (353 A.D.-430 A.D.) wrote in his essay on Christian Doctrine of a closed canon of Scripture. He accepted the Hebrew canon just as the Jews of his day and ours, and then cataloged the New Testament books as today. Augustine, while mentioning apocryphal writings placed them apart from the limits of canon.

16. Council of Carthage (A.D. 397) I.S.B.E. scholars have written, "The Council of Carthage in A.D. 397, in connection with its decree "that aside from the canonical Scriptures nothing is to be read in church under the name of Divine Scriptures," gives a list of the books of the New Testament. After this fashion there was an endeavor to secure unanimity, while at the same time differences of judgment and practice continued. The books which had varied treatment through these early centuries were He, the Apocalypse and the five minor Catholic epistles. The advance of Christianity under Constantine had much to do with the reception of the whole group of books in the East. The task which the emperor gave to Eusebius to prepare "fifty copies of the Divine Scriptures" established a standard which in time gave recognition to all doubtful books. In the West, Jerome and Augustine were the controlling factors in its settlement of the canon. The publication of the Vulgate (Jerome's Latin Bible, 390-405 A.D.) virtually determined the matter." International Standard Bible Encylopaedia

"Post-apostolic Fathers draw a clear distinction between their own writings and those of apostles like Paul and Peter (Polycarp, Ignatius, Barnabas)." International Standard Bible Encylopaedia

Evidences from "Early Translations" Witness an Early Canon

"I testify to everyone who hears the words of the prophecy of this book: if anyone adds to them, God will add to him the plagues which are written in this book, and if anyone takes away from the words of the book of this prophecy, God will take away his part from the tree of life and from the holy city, which are written in this book." Revelation 22:18-19

The manuscript photographed at the right is Codex Sinaiticus which dates from the fourth century A.D. Many believe it was commissioned by Eusebius under the direction of Constantine. The passage here is the final passage of Revelation which contains the above command.

We do not see this language at any earlier place in the New Testament. In the Gospel period Christ predicted there would be much public preaching and that "Heaven and earth will pass away, but My words will not pass away." Matt 24:35

This implies Jesus knew in advance that His words would be preserved for future generations. The high place Jesus gives His own words is similar to the way He spoke of the Old Testament Law being fulfilled down to every "jot" and "tittle." Mt 5:18

After Jesus ascension later in church history Paul instructs the church about which writings to accept and reject. 2 Thess 2:2 Later Peter says the "preached word" that he was preaching would endure forever. 1 Peter 1:25

There was no closing of the canon of the New Testament during the apostolic age. It is only at the close of the "apostolic period" when the final living apostle John received the news directly from God that the authoritative canon of the New Testament was to be closed. Revelation 22:18-19

It is important to note that when God closed the New Testament canon He did so using similar language to that of the closing of the Old Testament Law in Deuteronomy. "Whatever I command you, you shall be careful to do; you shall not add to nor take away from it" [Deu 12:32]. God Commanded Moses to Close the Canon of the Law. "You shall not add to the word which I am commanding you, nor take away from it, that you may keep the commandments of the LORD your God which I command you" [Deu 4:2].

Why Were Ancient New Testament Era Books Not Canonized?
By Origen's time the word canon had come to mean an official "rule of faith" as it pertained to a list or index of "accepted" books of Scripture. It is important to remember though that this list merely confirmed reality. No one had the authority to cause something to be "inspired" by decreeing it so. F.F. Bruce said, "the Synod of Hippo in A.D. 393 listed the 27 books of the New Testament, it did not confer upon them any authority which they did not already possess, but simply recorded their previously established canonicity." A Ready Defense, Life, 1992, p. 38

The canonization process was not ruling inspired Scripture into being, but was a filter to keep out a flood of uninspired works. Professor McDowell says, "many heretical or unauthentic writings falsely attached to the names of various apostles as their authors" were being marketed to an eager Christian audience in the early centuries of Christianity. A Ready Defense, Life, 1992, p. 38

The New Testament "Apocrypha"
The word "apocrypha" is Greek and it means something that is hidden. Jerome in the fourth century was first to label a whole class of documents with this name. Geisler and Nix have researched this body of books and written, "they were accepted by a limited number of Christians for a limited time but never gained very wide or permanent recognition." From God to Us, Moody Press, 1974, Norman Geisler and William Nix, p. 121 Geisler and Nix list several reasons for the value of these Apocryphal writings 1) they are historically important as portions of early homiletical and devotional libraries from the second century church. 2) They provide documentation for the acceptance of the twenty-seven canonical books of the New Testament. 3) They provide other valuable historical information about the early Christian church concerning its doctrine and liturgy. From God to Us, Moody Press, 1974, Norman Geisler and William Nix, p. 121

Geisler and Nix List of Apocrypha. The New Testament Apocrypha consists of, "Epistle of Pseudo-Barnabas (70-79 A.D.), Epistle to the Corinthians (96 A.D.), Second Epistle of Clement (120-140 A.D.), Shepherd of Hermas (115-140 A.D.), The Didache Teaching of the Twelve (100-120 A.D.), Apocalypse of Peter (150 A.D.), Acts of Paul and Thecla (170 A.D.), Epistle to Laodiceans (fourth century A.D.), Gospel According to the Hebrews (65-100 A.D.), Epistle of Polycarp to Philippians (108 A.D.), Seven Epistles of Ignatius (110 A.D.)." From God to Us, Moody Press, 1974, Norman Geisler and William Nix, p. 121-125

International Standard Bible Encylopaedia List of Apocrypha. "The books of the New Testament Apocrypha are thus given: (1) The Itinerary of Paul; (2) The Itinerary of Peter; (3) The Itinerary of John; (4) The Itinerary of Thomas; (5) The Gospel according to Thomas; (6) The Teaching of the Apostles (the Didache); (7) and (8) The Two Epistles of Clement; (9) Epistles of Ignatius, Polycarp and Hermas." International Standard Bible Encylopaedia

Early Church Fathers Against the New Testament Apocrypha. The early fathers themselves clearly spoke out against these kinds of writings: Origen, Cyril of Jerusalem, and Athanasius. A Ready Defense, Life, 1992, p. 40 Jerome, who translated the Latin Vulgate, refused at first to even make a translation of the apocrypha into Latin. Finally he relented and made a hurried copy which was not included into the Vulgate until after his death. A Ready Defense, Life, 1992, p. 40

Evidence for Rejecting the Canon of New Testament Apocrypha
Dr. Merrill C. Unger has written, "The apocryphal books of the NT, unlike those of the OT, have never claimed the faith of the Christian church, except in a few isolated instances. There are more than one hundred of them, and it is doubtful whether one of them appeared before the second century of our era. Most of them portray a much later date. They are valuable as an indication of the growth of thought and the rise of heresy in the age just subsequent to that of the apostles. None of them ever received the sanction of any ecclesiastical council." New Unger's Bible Dictionary, Moody Press Chicago

Nelson's Bible Dictionary
"The books known as the New Testament Apocrypha were written during the second and third centuries A. D., long after the death of the apostles and other eyewitnesses to the life and ministry of Jesus. None of these books were included in the New Testament because they were judged as unworthy and not authoritative by officials of the early church. These writings were greatly influenced by the philosophies and religions of the cities or nations out of which they came. Some of the apocryphal gospels were written to replace the gospels of the New Testament but were declared false writings by officials of the early church. Often the apocryphal books from the early history of the church present stories and legends meant to fill in information about the apostles and Jesus. While these apocryphal New Testament books are interesting and informative, none are considered authoritative like the books of the New Testament. For various reasons, these books were judged unworthy and were not accepted as authoritative when the New Testament took its final form in the third century A. D. Nelson's Illustrated Bible Dictionary, Thomas Nelson Publishers

Wycliffe Bible Encyclopedia
The Apocryphal New Testament "differs from the Old Testament Apocrypha in that it is seldom found in biblical manuscripts. It is unlikely that they preserve any authentic deeds or sayings of their heroes. The books tend to make propaganda for views which the writer thought were significant. Early heretics used these means to spread their views. In 1947 the known material of this sort was considerably enlarged by the discovery of a Gnostic library in Egypt containing portions of 13 codices in Coptic." Wycliffe Bible Encylopedia, Moody Press, 1975, vol. 1, p. 112

The New Testament "Pseudepigrapha"
The word "Pseudepigrapha" is a compound word from "psuedo" meaning false and "graphe" meaning writing. Geisler and Nix write that "Eusebius called these books ‘totally absurd and impious.' Virtually no Father, canon or council pronounced any of these books canonical." From God to Us, Moody Press, 1974, Norman Geisler and William Nix, p. 113-114

Content of the Pseudepigrapha
There is no agreement as to how many books belong to this class. They are sometimes attempts to connect with the Old Testament and sometimes with the New Testament. Geisler and Nix have written, "their contents are heretical teachings of Gnostics, Docetic, and ascetic errors." From God to Us, Moody Press, 1974, Norman Geisler and William Nix, p. 114

Geisler and Nix List of Pseudepigrapha
a. Gospels.. Gospel of Thomas (1st century Gnostic view), Gospel of Ebionites (2nd century Gnostic view), Gospel of Peter (2nd century Docetic and Gnostic view), Protevangelium of James (2nd century Mary narrative), Gospel of Egyptians (2nd century asceticism), Arabic Gospel of Childhood (Zoroastrian late of Jesus in Egypt), Gospel of Nicodemus (2nd - 5th century), Gospel of Joseph the Carpenter (4th century Monophysite view), Passing of Mary (4th century Mary worship advanced), Gospel of Nativity of Mary (6th century late Mary worship), Gospel of Pseudo-Matthew (5th century boyhood of Jesus miracles). From God to Us, Moody Press, 1974, Norman Geisler and William Nix, p. 114-115

b. Acts. Acts of Peter (2nd century legend of crucifixion of Peter), Acts of John (2nd century Gnostic and Docetic views), Acts of Andrew (late Gnostic), Acts of Thomas (late of Thomas mission to India). From God to Us, Moody Press, 1974, Norman Geisler and William Nix, p. 115

c. Epistles. Letter Attributed to our Lord (unknown date spurious), Lost Epistle to the Corinthians (2nd or 3rd century forgery). From God to Us, Moody Press, 1974, Norman Geisler and William Nix, p. 116

d. Apocalypses. Apocalypse of Peter, Apocalypse of Paul, Apocalypse of Thomas, Apocalypse of Stephen, Second Apocalypse of James, Apocalypse of Messos, and the Apocalypse of Dositheos. Geisler and Nix say that "these last three are third century Coptic Gnostic words found in 1946 at Hag-Hammadi in Egypt. From God to Us, Moody Press, 1974, Norman Geisler and William Nix, p. 116

e. Miscellaneous. Secret Book of John, Traditions of Matthias, Dialogue of the Savior. Geisler and Nix say all of these were found in 1946 at Hag-Hammadi in Egypt being unknown before 1946. From God to Us, Moody Press, 1974, Norman Geisler and William Nix, p. 116

Summary Rejection of the Pseudepigrapha. Geisler and Nix write in summary of the pseudepigrapha, "since all the great teachers and councils of the church were virtually unanimous in rejecting these books because of their inauthenticity or heresies, they are properly called pseudepigrapha. Whatever fragments of truth they preserve are obscured both by their religious fancy and heretical tendencies. The books are not only uncanonical but are not much value for religious or devotional purposes. Their main value is historical, revealing the beliefs of their composers." From God to Us, Moody Press, 1974, Norman Geisler and William Nix, p. 116-117

Summary for the New Testament Canon
Geisler and Nix write, "we may summarize by saying that the vast majority of the New Testament books were never disputed from the beginning. Of the books originally recognized as inspired but later questioned, all of them came to the full and final acceptance by the universal church. Some other books which enjoyed wide usage and were included in local lists for a time were valuable for devotional and homiletical use but never gained canonical recognition by the church. Only the twenty-seven books of the New Testament are known to be genuinely apostolic. Only these twenty-seven have found a permanent place in the New Testament canon." From God to Us, Moody Press, 1974, Norman Geisler and William Nix, p. 125

.

(kan'-un)
I. TWO PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS
.. 1. Early Christians Had the Old Testament
.. 2. No Intention of Writing the New Testament
II. THREE STAGES OF THE PROCESS
.. 1. From the Apostles to 170 AD
...... (1) Clement of Rome; Ignatius; Polycarp
...... (2) Forces Increasing Value of Writings
........... (a) Apologists, Justin Martyr
........... (b) Gnostics, Marcion
.. 2. From 170 AD to 220 AD
...... (1) Irenaeus
...... (2) Muratorian Fragment
.. 3. 3rd and 4th Centuries
...... (1) Origen
...... (2) Dionysius
...... (3) Cyprian
...... (4) Eusebins
...... (5) Athanasius
...... (6) Council of Carthage; Jerome; Augustine
LITERATURE

I. Two Preliminary Considerations.-- The canon is the collection of 27 books which the church (generally) receives as its New Testament Scriptures. The history of the canon is the history of the process by which these books were brought together and their value as sacred Scriptures officially recognized. That process was gradual, furthered by definite needs, and, though unquestionably continuous, is in its earlier stages difficult to trace. It is always well in turning to the study of it to have in mind two considerations which bear upon the earliest phases of the whole movement. These are:

1. Early Christians Had the Old Testament: (1) The early Christians had in their hands what was a Bible to them, namely, the Old Testament Scriptures. These were used to a surprising extent in Christian instruction. For a whole century after the death of Jesus this was the case. These Scriptures were read in the churches, and there could be at first no idea of placing beside them new books which could for a moment rank with them in honor and authority. It has been once and again discussed whether Christianity from the first was a "book-religion." The decision of the matter depends upon what is referred to by the word "book." Christianity certainly did have from the very beginning a book which it reverenced-- the Old Testament-- but years passed before it had even the beginnings of a book of its own. What has been called "the wealth of living canonical material," namely, prophets and teachers, made written words of subordinate value.

2. No Intention of Writing the NT: In this very teaching, however, with its oral traditions lay the beginnings of that movement which was ultimately to issue in a canon of writings. (2) When the actual work of writing began no one who sent forth an epistle or framed a gospel had before him the definite purpose of contributing toward the formation of what we call "the Bible." All the New Testament writers looked for "the end" as near. Their words, therefore, were to meet definite needs in the lives of those with whom they were associated. They had no thought of creating a new sacred literature. And yet these incidental occasional writings have come to be our choicest Scripture. The circumstances and influences which brought about this result are here briefly set forth.

II. Three Stages of the Process.-- For convenience of arrangement and definiteness of impression the whole process may be marked off in three stages: (1) that from the time of the apostles until about 170 AD; (2) that of the closing years of the 2nd century and the opening of the 3rd (170-220 AD); (3) that of the 3rd and 4th centuries. In the first we seek for the evidences of the growth in appreciation of the peculiar value of the New Testament writings; in the second we discover the clear, full recognition of a large part of these writings as sacred and authoritative; in the third the acceptance of the complete canon in the East and in the West.

1. From the Apostles to 170 AD: (1) The first period extending to 170 AD.-- It does not lie within the scope of this article to recount the origin of the several books of the New Testament. This belongs properly to New Testament Introduction (which see). By the end of the 1st century all of the books of the New Testament were in existence. They were, as treasures of given churches, widely separated and honored as containing the word of Jesus or the teaching of the apostles. From the very first the authority of Jesus had full recognition in all the Christian world. The whole work of the apostles was in interpreting Him to the growing church. His sayings and His life were in part for the illumination of the Old Testament; wholly for the understanding of life and its issues. In every assembly of Christians from the earliest days He was taught as well as the Old Testament. In each church to which an epistle was written that epistle was likewise read.

Paul asked that his letters be read in this way <1 Thes 5:27; Col 4:16>. In this attentive listening to the exposition of some event in the life of Jesus or to the reading of the epistle of an apostle began the "authorization" of the traditions concerning Jesus and the apostolic writings. The widening of the area of the church and the departure of the apostles from earth emphasized increasingly the value of that which the writers of the New Testament left behind them. Quite early the desire to have the benefit of all possible instruction led to the interchange of Christian writings. Polycarp (110 AD writes to the Philippians, "I have received letters from you and from Ignatius. You recommend me to send on yours to Syria; I shall do so either personally or by some other means. In return I send you the letter of Ignatius as well as others which I have in my hands and for which you made request. I add them to the present one; they will serve to edify your faith and perseverance" (Epistle to Phil, XIII). This is an illustration of what must have happened toward furthering a knowledge of the writings of the apostles.

Just when and to what extent "collections" of our New Testament books began to be made it is impossible to say, but it is fair to infer that a collection of the Pauline epistles existed at the time Polycarp wrote to the Phil and when Ignatius wrote his seven letters to the churches of Asia Minor, i.e. about 115 AD. There is good reason to think also that the four Gospels were brought together in some places as early as this. A clear distinction, however, is to be kept in mind between "collections" and such recognition as we imply in the word "canonical." The gathering of books was one of the steps preliminary to this. Examination of the testimony to the New Testament in this early time indicates also that it is given with no intention of framing the canonicity of New Testament books. In numerous instances only "echoes" of the thought of the epistles appear; again quotations are incomplete; both showing that Scripture words are used as the natural expression of Christian thought. In the same way the Apostolic Fathers refer to the teachings and deeds of Jesus. They witness "to the substance and not to the authenticity of the Gospels." That this all may be more evident let us note in more detail the witness of the subapostolic age.

Clement of Rome, in 95 AD, wrote a letter in the name of the Christians of Rome to those in Corinth. In this letter he uses material found in Mt, Lk, giving it a free rendering (see chapters 46 and 13); he has been much influenced by the Epistle to the He (see chapters 9, 10, 17, 19, 36). He knows Romans, Corinthians, and there are found echoes of 1 Timothy, Titus, 1 Peter and Ephesians.

The Epistles of Ignatius (115 AD) have correspondences with our gospels in several places and incorporate language from nearly all of the Pauline epistles. The Epistle to Polycarp makes large use of Phil, and besides this cites nine of the other Pauline epistles. Ignatius quotes from Matthew, apparently from memory; also from 1 Peter and 1 John. In regard to all these three writers-- Clement, Polycarp, Ignatius-- it is not enough to say that they bring us reminiscences or quotations from this or that book. Their thought is tinctured all through with New Testament truth. As we move a little farther down the years we come to "The Teaching of the Twelve Apostles" (circa 120 AD in its present form; see DIDACHE); the Epistle of Barnabas (circa 130 AD) and the Shepherd of Hermas (circa 130 AD). These exhibit the same phenomena as appear in the writings of Clement, Ignatius and Polycarp as far as references to the New Testament are concerned. Some books are quoted, and the thought of the three writings echoes again and again the teachings of the New Testament. They bear distinct witness to the value of "the gospel" and the doctrine of the apostles, so much so as to place these clearly above their own words. It is in the Epistle of Barnabas that we first come upon the phrase "it is written," referring to a New Testament book (Matthew) (see Epis., iv. 14). In this deepening sense of value was enfolded the feeling of authoritativeness, which slowly was to find expression. It is well to add that what we have so far discovered was true in widely separated parts of the Christian world as e.g. Rome and Asia Minor.

The literature of the period we are examining was not, however, wholly of the kind of which we have been speaking. Two forces were calling out other expressions of the singular value of the writings of the apostles, whether gospels or epistles. These were (a) the attention of the civil government in view of the rapid growth of the Christian church and (b) heresy. The first brought to the defense or commendation of Christianity the Apologists, among whom were Justin Martyr, Aristides, Melito of Sardis and Theophilus of Antioch. By far the most important of these was Justin Martyr, and his work may be taken as representative. He was born about 100 AD at Shechem, and died as a martyr at Rome in 165 AD. His two Apologies and the Dialogue with Trypho are the sources for the study of his testimony. He speaks of the "Memoirs of the Apostles called Gospels" (Ap., i. 66) which were read on Sunday interchangeably with the prophets (i. 67). Here emerges that equivalence in value of these "Gospels" with the Old Testament Scriptures which may really mark the beginning of canonization. That these Gospels were our four Gospels as we now have them is yet a disputed question; but the evidence is weighty that they were. (See Purves, Testimony of Justin Martyr to Early Christianity, Lect V.) The fact that Tatian, his pupil, made a harmony of the Gospels, i.e. of our four Gospels, also bears upon our interpretation of Justin's "Memoirs." (See Hemphill, The Diatessaron of Tatian.) The only other New Testament book which Justin mentions is the Apocalypse; but he appears to have known the Acts, six epistles of Paul, Hebrew and 1 John, and echoes of still other epistles are perceptible. When he speaks of the apostles it is after this fashion: "By the power of God they proclaimed to every race of men that they were sent by Christ to teach to all the Word of God" (Ap., i. 39). It is debatable, however, whether this refers to more than the actual preaching of the apostles. The beginning of the formation of the canon is in the position and authority given to the Gospels.

While the Apologists were busy commending or defending Christianity, heresy in the form of Gnosticism was also compelling attention to the matter of the writings of the apostles. From the beginning gnostic teachers claimed that Jesus had favored chosen ones of His apostles with a body of esoteric truth which had been handed down by secret tradition. This the church denied, and in the controversy that went on through years the question of what were authoritative writings became more and more pronounced. Basilides e.g., who taught in Alexandria during the reign of Hadrian (AD 117-38), had for his secret authority the secret tradition of the apostle Matthias and of Glaucias, an alleged interpreter of Peter, but he bears witness to Matthew, Luke, John, Romans, 1 Corinthians, Ephesians, and Colossians in the effort to recommend his doctrines, and, what is more, gives them the value of Scripture in order to support more securely his teachings. (See Philosophoumena of Hippolytus, VII, 17). Valentinus, tracing his authority through Theodas to Paul, makes the same general use of New Testament books, and Tertullian tells us that he appeared to use the whole New Testament as then known.

The most noted of the Gnostics was Marcion, a native of Pontus. He went to Rome (circa 140 AD), there broke with the church and became a dangerous heretic. In support of his peculiar views, he formed a canon of his own which consisted of Luke's Gospel and ten of the Pauline epistles. He rejected the Pastoral Epistles, Hebrews, Matthew, Mark, John, the Acts, the Catholic epistles and the Apocalypse, and made a recension of both the gospel of Luke and the Pauline epistles which he accepted. His importance, for us, however, is in the fact that he gives us the first clear evidence of the canonization of the Pauline epistles. Such use of the Scriptures inevitably called forth both criticism and a clearer marking off of those books which were to be used in the churches opposed to heresy, and so "in the struggle with Gnosticism the canon was made." We are thus brought to the end of the first period in which we have marked the collection of New Testament books in greater or smaller compass, the increasing valuation of them as depositions of the truth of Jesus and His apostles, and finally the movement toward the claim of their authoritativeness as over against perverted teaching. No sharp line as to a given year can be drawn between the first stage of the process and the second. Forces working in the first go on into the second, but results are accomplished in the second which give it its right to separate consideration.

2. From 170 AD to 220 AD: (2) The period from 170 AD to 220 AD.-- This is the age of a voluminous theological literature busy with the great issues of church canon and creed. It is the period of the great names of Irenaeus, Clement of Alexandria, and Tertullian, representing respectively Asia Minor, Egypt and North Africa. In passing into it we come into the clear light of Christian history. There is no longer any question as to a New Testament canon; the only difference of judgment is as to its extent. What has been slowly but surely shaping itself in the consciousness of the church now comes to clear expression.

Irenaeus.-- That expression we may study in Irenaeus as representative of the period. He was born in Asia Minor, lived and taught in Rome and became afterward bishop of Lyons. He had, therefore, a wide acquaintance with the churches, and was peculiarly competent to speak concerning the general judgment of the Christian world. As a pupil of Polycarp, who was a disciple of John, he is connected with the apostles themselves. An earnest defender of the truth, he makes the New Testament in great part his authority, and often appeals to it. The four Gospels, the Acts, the epistles of Paul, several of the Catholic epistles and the Apocalypse are to him Scripture in the fullest sense. They are genuine and authoritative, as much so as the Old Testament ever was. He dwells upon the fact that there are four gospels, the very number being prefigured in the four winds and the four quarters of the earth. Every attempt to increase or diminish the number is heresy. Tertullian takes virtually the same position (Adv. Marc., iv. 2), while Clement of Alexandria quotes all four gospels as "Scripture." By the end of the 2nd century the canon of the gospels was settled. The same is true also of the Pauline epistles. Irenaeus makes more than two hundred citations from Paul, and looks upon his epistles as Scripture (Adv. Haer., iii. 12, 12). Indeed, at this time it may be said that the new canon was known under the designation "The Gospel and the Apostles" in contradistinction to the old as "the Law and the Prophets." The title "New Testament" appears to have been first used by an unknown writer against Montanism (circa 193 AD). It occurs frequently after this in Origen and later writers. In considering all this testimony two facts should have emphasis:

(1) its wide extent: Clement and Irenaeus represent parts of Christendom which are widely separated; (2) the relation of these men to those who have gone before them. Their lives together with those before them spanned nearly the whole time from the apostles. They but voiced the judgment which silently, gradually had been selecting the "Scripture" which they freely and fully acknowledged and to which they made appeal.

The Muratorian Fragment.-- Just here we come upon the Muratorian Fragment, so called because discovered in 1740 by the librarian of Milan, Muratori. It dates from some time near the end of the 2nd century, is of vital interest in the study of the history of the canon, since it gives us a list of New Testament books and is concerned with the question of the canon itself. The document comes from Rome, and Lightfoot assigns it to Hippolytus. Its list contains the Gospels (the first line of the fragment is incomplete, beginning with Mark, but Matthew is clearly implied), the Acts, the Pauline epistles, the Apocalypse, 1 and 2 John (perhaps by implication the third) and Jude. It does not mention Hebrew, 1 and 2 Peter, James. In this list we have virtually the real position of the canon at the close of the 2nd century Complete unanimity had not been attained in reference to all the books which are now between the covers of our New Testament. Seven books had not yet found a secure place beside the gospel and Paul in all parts of the church. The Palestinian and Syrian churches for a long time rejected the Apocalypse, while some of the Catholic epistles were in Egypt considered doubtful. The history of the final acceptance of these belongs to the third period.

3. 3rd and 4th Centuries: (3) The period included by the 3rd and 4th centuries-- It has been said that "the question of the canon did not make much progress in the course of the 3rd century" (Reuss, History of the Canon of Holy Scripture, 125). We have the testimony of a few notable teachers mostly from one center, Alexandria. Their consideration of the question of the disputed book serves just here one purpose. By far the most distinguished name of the 3rd century is Origen. He was born in Alexandria about 185 AD, and before he was seventeen became an instructor in the school for catechumens. In 203 he was appointed bishop, experienced various fortunes, and died in 254. His fame rests upon his ability as an exegete, though he worked laboriously and successfully in other fields. His testimony is of high value, not simply because of his own studies, but also because of his wide knowledge of what was thought in other Christian centers in the world of his time. Space permits us only to give in summary form his conclusions, especially in regard to the books still in doubt. The Gospels, the Pauline epistles, the Acts, he accepts without question. He discusses at some length the authorship of He, believes that "God alone knows who wrote it," and accepts it as Scripture. His testimony to the Apocalypse is given in the sentence, "Therefore John the son of Zebedee says in the Revelation." He also gives sure witness to Jude, but wavers in regard to James, 2 Peter, 2 John, and 3 John.

Another noted name of this century is Dionysius of Alexandria, a pupil of Origen (died 265). His most interesting discussion is regarding the Apocalypse, which he attributes to an unknown John, but he does not dispute its inspiration. It is a singular fact that the western church accepted this book from the first, while its position in the East was variable. Conversely the Epistle to the He was more insecure in the West than in the East. In regard to the Catholic epistles Dionysius supports James, 2 John, and 3 John, but not 2 Peter or Jude.

In the West the name of Cyprian, bishop of Carthage (248-58 AD), was most influential. He was much engaged in controversy, but a man of great personal force. The Apocalypse he highly honored, but he was silent about the Epistle to the Hebrews. He refers to only two of the Catholic epistles, 1 Peter and 1 John.

These testimonies confirm what was said above, namely, that the end of the 3rd century leaves the question of the full canon about where it was at the beginning. 1 Peter and 1 John seem to have been everywhere known and accepted. In the West the five Catholic epistles gained recognition more slowly than in the East.

In the early part of the 4th century Eusebius (270-340 AD), bishop of Caesarea before 315, sets before us in his Church History (III, chapters iii-xxv) his estimate of the canon in his time. He does not of course use the word canon, but he "conducts an historical inquiry into the belief and practice of earlier generations." He lived through the last great persecution in the early part of the 4th century, when not only places of worship were razed to the ground, but also the sacred Scriptures were in the public market-places consigned to the flames (Eusebius, Historia Ecclesiastica, VIII, 2). It was, therefore, no idle question what book a loyal Christian must stand for as his Scripture. The question of the canon had an earnest, practical significance. Despite some obscurity and apparent contradictions, his classification of the New Testament books was as follows:

(1) The acknowledged books. His criteria for each of these was authenticity and apostolicity and he placed in this list the Gospels, Acts, and Paul's epistles, including He. (2) The disputed books, i.e. those which had obtained only partial recognition, to which he assigned Jas, Jude, 2 Pet and 2 Jn. About the Apocalypse also he was not sure. In this testimony there is not much advance over that of the 3rd century. It is virtually the canon of Origen. All this makes evident the fact that as yet no official decision nor uniformity of usage in the church gave a completed canon. The time, however, was drawing on when various forces at work were to bring much nearer this unanimity and enlarge the list of acknowledged books. In the second half of the 4th century repeated efforts were made to put an end to uncertainty. Athanasius in one of his pastoral letters in connection with the publishing of the ecclesiastical calendar gives a list of the books comprising Scripture, and in the New Testament portion are included all the 27 books which we now recognize. "These are the wells of salvation," he writes, "so that he who thirsts may be satisfied with the sayings in these. Let no one add to these. Let nothing be taken away." Gregory of Nazianzen (died 390 AD) also published a list omitting Revelation, as did Cyril of Jerusalem (died 386), and quite at the end of the century (4th) Isidore of Pelusium speaks of the "canon of truth, the Divine Scriptures." For a considerable time the Apocalypse was not accepted in the Palestinian or Syrian churches. Athanasius helped toward its acceptance in the church of Alexandria. Some differences of opinion, however, continued. The Syrian church did not accept all of the Catholic epistles until much later.

The Council of Carthage in 397, in connection with its decree "that aside from the canonical Scriptures nothing is to be read in church under the name of Divine Scriptures," gives a list of the books of the New Testament. After this fashion there was an endeavor to secure unanimity, while at the same time differences of judgment and practice continued. The books which had varied treatment through these early centuries were He, the Apocalypse and the five minor Catholic epistles. The advance of Christianity under Constantine had much to do with the reception of the whole group of books in the East. The task which the emperor gave to Eusebius to prepare "fifty copies of the Divine Scriptures" established a standard which in time gave recognition to all doubtful books. In the West, Jerome and Augustine were the controlling factors in its settlement of the canon. The publication of the Vulgate (Jerome's Latin Bible, 390-405 A.D.) virtually determined the matter.

In conclusion let it be noted how much the human element was involved in the whole process of forming our New Testament. No one would wish to dispute a providential overruling of it all. Also it is well to bear in mind that all the books have not the same clear title to their places in the canon as far as the history of their attestation is concerned. Clear and full and unanimous, however, has been the judgment from the beginning upon the Gospels, the Acts, the Pauline epistles, 1 Peter and 1 John.

LITERATURE.-- Reuss, History of the Canon of Holy Scriptures; E. C. Moore, The New Testament in the Christian Church; Gregory, Canon and Text of the New Testament; Introductions to New Testament of Julicher, Weiss, Reuss; Zahn, Geschichte des Neutest. Kanons; Harnack, Das New Testament um das Jahr 200; Chronologie der altchristlichen Literatur; Westcott, The Canon of the New Testament; Zahn, Forschungen zur Gesch. des neutest. Kanons.

J. S. Riggs, Canon of the New Testament, International Standard Bible Encylopaedia.